Diskussionspapier

Comparative Strategy Process Research:

A Methodological Approach

Sascha L. Schmidt

Nr. 53 - July 2005

Universität St. Gallen Hochschule für Wirtschafts-, Rechts- und Sozialwissenschaften

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Comparative strategy process research: A methodological approach

Von Sascha L. Schmidt

Abstract

Today, there is no generally accepted concept for the comparative empirical exploration of strat-

egy processes. The paper proposes a methodological approach that combines a number of estab-

lished research methods. The six-step approach enables the researcher to identify turning points

in strategic change processes from the outside-in as well as allowing him to increase the effec-

tiveness of interviews with key organizational informants. It is illustrated based on an analysis of

Ciba’s and Sandoz’s strategy processes prior to their Novartis megamerger.

Introduction

The increasing number of academic publications1 , special issues

2, conferences

3 , roundtable dis-

cussions, and forums4 on strategy process research since the mid 1990's indicate the growing

scholarly interest in how strategies are formulated and implemented within firms and how the

process of strategic change occurs and develops over time. But multiple empirical studies also

confirm how difficult it is to observe strategy processes as they unfold.

First, strategy processes are the result of a combination of individual thought processes and deci-

sion making processes that are politically interactive, shaped on an intra-organizational basis, and

occur simultaneously (Bailey, Johnson, & Daniels, 2000: 151; Chakravarthy & White, 2001;

Mintzberg & Lampel, 1999). Therefore, obtaining insights into intraorganizational activities as

strategic change occurs (Garud & Van de Ven, 2000: 39) is a particular problem for studying

strategic change from a process perspective. Regrettably, only little empirical work has been done

since scholars claimed to "catch reality in flight" (Chakravarthy, Mueller-Stewens, et al., 2002:

232; Chakravarthy, & Doz, 1992: 10; Pettigrew, 1995: 92; Van de Ven, 1992: 181). It obviously

is and will remain difficult for researchers to study strategy processes using first-hand informa-

tion in the settings where they naturally occur: “Real time studies of strategy process are difficult.

It is unlikely that a firm engaged in a new strategy would allow a team of researchers to observe

its evolution from multiple vantage points” (Chakravarthy & White, 2001: 201).

Second, strategy processes have significant impact on a firm's corporate development and receive

much attention from executive management. Especially at times when firms face major chal-

lenges such as mergers, spin-offs, cultural transformation, distressed or turnaround situations, ex-

ecutives have incentives for not making strategic change processes publicly transparent. On the

contrary, they keep certain information confidential and present a well prepared storyline to avoid

capital market irritations.

As a result of these difficulties, it is not surprising that there is no generally accepted concept for

the comparative empirical exploration of strategy processes and strategic change (Chakravarthy

& White, 2001; Van de Ven 1995). Scholars have not yet been able to develop standard methods

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for this kind of empirical research (Eisenhardt, 1995: 68; Van de Ven & Huber, 1995: x). There is

a clear need to find ways to explore strategy processes as an alternative to action research (see

Eden & Huxham, 1996) and to develop standard methods for improving field research on strat-

egy processes. In this regard, we propose a methodological approach that combines a number of

established empirical research methods. It demonstrates how turning points and breakpoints in

strategic change processes can be identified with publicly available data and used to increase ef-

ficiency and effectiveness of interviews with key organizational informants.

The first part of the paper reviews prior empirical strategy process studies and identifies major

gaps and limitations. The second part explains our hybrid methodological approach for exploring

strategic change processes in detail. Finally, our approach is illustrated in the third part with a

longitudinal case study of Ciba and Sandoz prior to their Novartis merger in 1997.

Literature review

The organizational change literature differentiates between planned and unplanned, emergent and

realized, incremental and radical, evolutionary and revolutionary, induced and autonomous, and

recurrent and unprecedented change (Burgelman, 1983a, 1983b; Mintzberg & Waters, 1985; Pet-

tigrew, 1985, 1995; Tushman & Anderson, 1986). Strategic change can be defined as a difference

over time in form, quality, or state in a firm’s alignment with its external environment (Rajagopo-

lan & Spreitzer, 1996; Van de Ven & Poole, 1995). The term is limited to organizational changes

that result in adjustments in a firm’s strategy.

The strategy itself is addressed in the content research stream of the strategic management litera-

ture (Grant, 2001). Content researchers focus on the antecendents or consequences of strategic

change by utilizing large samples and statistical methods (e.g., Gibbs, 1993; Glick, Huber et al.,

1995; Goodstein, Gautam & Boeker, 1994; Hoskisson & Johnson, 1992; Wiersema & Banthel,

1993). They measure the magnitude of change, the likelihood of change in the strategy, or the

direction of changes in the "content" of strategy (Rajagopolan & Spreitzer, 1996: 50; Fombrun,

1993: 159).

Content-driven research studies use process logic to explain causal relationships between ob-

served input factors (independent variables) and outcome criteria (dependent variables). Taking

such a variance approach is valuable in stable contexts where the boundaries of the phenomenon

under consideration are clear (Garud & Van de Ven, 2000). However, quantitative methods ap-

plied by content researchers are designed for the analysis of static patterns rather than for the dy-

namics of change (Van de Ven, 1999). As a result, they do not appear to be well suited for re-

search on strategic change processes.

Content research describes attractive destinations, but does not explain how to get there. The task

of strategy process researchers is to understand the journey (Chakravarthy & White, 2001). Thus,

process scholars try to answer the question of how strategic change emerges, develops, grows, or

terminates over time (Van de Ven et al., 1999). Contrary to variance research, process studies try

to open the "black box" of managerial processes. They focus on how managerial actions impact

readiness and resistence to strategic change and as well as how they affect overall outcomes of

the strategic change process (Rajagopolan & Spreitzer, 1996).

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Most empirical studies focus on the role of managers in the strategic change process by utilizing

in-depth case study methodologies. Executives appear to shape the content of strategies through a

variety of activities. These include the articulation of a vision or mission statement and of com-

pany-wide goals (Greiner & Bhambri, 1989), specific resource allocations and investment deci-

sions (Bower, 1986; Noda & Bower 1996), and leadership (Denis et al., 2001). However, empiri-

cal evidence demonstrates that strategy content changes can also emerge from lower-level mana-

gerial action (e.g., Bower & Doz, 1979; Mintzberg & Quinn, 1998; Quinn, 1989). Bower au-

thored one of the groundbreaking studies in this field long ago. He developed a resource alloca-

tion process model (RAP-model) in the early 1970s based on his studies of capital budgeting.

Bower (1970) divides strategic processes of multidivisional corporations into bottom-up proc-

esses of definition and impetus and a top-down process of determination of context.

• Definition begins with the observation, evaluation, and assessment of new technological op-

portunities and market changes. Ideas for the company’s business activities are generated

and specified in the form of investment requests on a multidivisional corporation’s prod-

uct/market front.

• Impetus describes a socio-political decision-making process set in motion by strategic in-

vestment requests. A request that receives widespread approval gains some sort of "impe-

tus" within the corporation. In this scenario, the middle management is of tremendous im-

portance because it is either able to support or block a request guided by existing evaluation

and reward systems. The activities of the operational and middle management are therefore

the source of most strategic projects and the attendant resource allocations.

• Determination of context refers to the selection of the formal organizational structure as

well as the control, information, evaluation, and reward systems. It is driven mainly by top

management. In creating the structural context, top management exerts considerable influ-

ence on the processes of perception, analysis, and decision-making in resource allocations.

The RAP model was modified and extended by Burgelman in the early 1980s. He developed the

Bower-Burgelman (BB) process model of strategy making based on insights derived empirically.

In this regard, Burgelman (1983) investigated the interaction among strategic behavior, corporate

context, and the corporate strategy. He examined the initiation and development of new business

activities in longitudinal case studies using internal venture units in multidivisional corporations

(Burgelman 1983a, 1983b). As a result, strategic change processes turned out to be determined

through managerial behavior that is either induced by top management or which develops

autonomously. Induced strategic behavior uses categories provided by the current strategy to

identify business opportunities. Autonomous strategic behavior, on the contrary, falls outside the

scope of the firm’s current corporate strategy. It refines existing product/market combinations

through the introduction of new categories for defining opportunities. Autonomous strategic be-

havior develops bottom-up within a company and applies to efforts that mobilize corporate re-

sources through project championing. In summary, changes in strategy content are the result of a

bottom-up and top-down multilayered process. The BB process model provided the basis for a

series of further empirical studies (e.g., Burgelman 1991, 1994, 1996; Burgelman & Grove, 2001;

Noda & Bower, 1996). Among others, Burgelman (1994, 1996) identified intra-organizational

patterns of management activity that contributed to Intel’s decision to opt out of its core dynamic

random access memory business.

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Longitudinal case studies such as Burgelman's are most suitable for answering the question of

how strategic change emerges, develops, grows, or terminates over time (Eisenhardt, 1995: 87;

Yin, 1994). They build a "history of a past or current phenomenon, drawn from multiple sources

of evidence" (Leonard-Barton, 1995: 40) and go beyond cross-sectional studies (Monge, 1995:

270; Pettigrew, 1997). However, it is very difficult to conduct this kind of research. First of all,

researchers lack access to real time data. Ideally, the strategic change phenomenon should be

studied "in the making". Unfortunately, it is very unusal for researchers to be able to observe ex-

ecutives on a day-to-day basis. Second, contrary to variance approaches that are well known and

codified in standard research methodology books, relatively little attention has been given to the

development of methods for conducting longitudinal case studies. As a result, there is no estab-

lished standard set of methods available to date (Garud & Van de Ven, 2000; Van de Ven &

Huber, 1995).

Proposed methodological approach

Given the lack of standard methods for conducting field research on strategy processes the goal is

to contribute to knowledge accumulation. Accordingly, the approach presented here combines a

number of reliable methods within strategy process research. Our design of longitudinal retro-

spective case study research is based on previous work on qualitative methods (Miles & Huber-

man, 1994), case study research (Eisenhardt, 1995; Leonard-Barton, 1995; Stake, 1995, 2000;

Yin, 1993, 1994) and theory building (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990, 1994,

1998). The applied iterative research process (the collection, storing and validation of data) as

well as the development of the database goes back to a methodology developed in the context of

the Minnesota Innovation Research Project.5

Theory building from case studies falls into the field of "qualitative research". The term qualita-

tive research is surrounded by a complex interconnected family of terms, concepts, and assump-

tions (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). We follow a substantial body of management and organization

studies (see Prasad & Prasad, 2002; Van Maanen, 1998) choosing a postpositivistic approach to

qualitative research over alternative genres in social sciences. 6 This means, according to Eisen-

hardt (1995), that our research process is “directed towards the development of testable hypothe-

ses and theory that is generalizable across settings” (1995: 84). Traditional positivistic assump-

tions about the nature of organizational reality imply that there is a concrete reality which can be

analyzed, captured, and understood (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000: 9). Reality is assumed to be “sepa-

rate from the researcher and cognizable through the use of so-called objective methods of data

collection” (Prasad & Prasad, 2002: 7). Against the background of this onthological assumptions

("naive realism") we are taking a postpositivist perspective according to which reality can never

be fully comprehended but only approximated (Guba, 1990). A postpositivist position allows the

utilization and combination of multiple data collection and analysis methods as well as the inclu-

sion of various kinds of data (see Stablein, 1996) in order to capture as many different facets of

an underlying yet unknown reality as possible (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000: 9). For instance, our

methodological approach requires the profound analysis of secondary data as well as interviews

with organization informants.

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Qualitative procedures are applied that lend themselves to structured and computer-assisted

analysis of resource allocation processes (see Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Incidents are coded and

transformed into numeric data. Doing so, our methodology transcends the popular but somehow

artificial distinction between quantitative and qualitative investigations. This argument is in line

with scholars who claim that the widespread separation between ”numerical” and “non-

numerical” representations does not cope with the complexities of the objects under investigation

(Stablein, 1996: 515; Van Maanen et al., 1982: 15). In any event, doing case study research al-

lows the combination of qualitative and quantitative evidence: “Although the term qualitative and

case study are often used interchangeably, case study research can involve qualitative data only,

quantitative data only, or both. Moreover, the combination of data types can be highly synergis-

tic” (Eisenhardt, 1995: 73).

Overall, our methodological approach is structured along six steps (see Figure 1).

Systematic data gathering

1) Identification of relevant empirical observations

2) Development of a resource allocation database

Data analysis and early hypotheses

3) Transformation of raw data and coding

4) Identification of process patterns and preliminary hypotheses

Structured interviews and conclusions

5) Validation of collected data and preliminary hypotheses in interviews

6) Consolidation of findings through iterative process

Figure 1: Six-step methodological approach

Step 1: Identification of relevant empirical observations

First of all, requirements for relevant empirical data that can be collected from publicly available

sources need to be defined. In order to avoid "being buried in data", scholars have pointed out

that process studies should focus on a single aspect of strategic management such as resource al-

location, innovation, or internal corporate venturing (Burgelman, 1994). For example, resource

allocation appears to be a particularly useful research aspect for developing a better understand-

ing of strategy processes (Bower, 1997). Decisions on resource allocation indicate how firms im-

plement abstract long-term corporate goals in concrete situations. Furthermore, the investigation

of resource allocation processes has practical advantages. Data on resource allocation is relatively

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easy to access as publically listed firms are required to publicize important resource transactions,

such as acquisitions, layoffs, divestments. Firms have only limited freedom due to legal require-

ments to build up information asymmetries toward their shareholders and other stakeholders.

Given that resource allocation is an all-compassing phrase (Bower, 1986: 3) it needs to be opera-

tionalized. Within the frame of an outside-in analysis, it is useful to look at activities that affect

tangible resources such as financial resources (capital, cash flow), physical resources (real estate,

infrastructure), human resources, organizational resources (organizational structures, manage-

ment, control, and evaluation systems), and technological resources (machinery and other hard-

ware, software, patents). Tangible resource transactions are easy to access, measure, and record

from an outside-in perspective because they are inherently codable. In contrast, intangible re-

sources such as brands, images, and skills, are much more difficult to analyze. They should in-

stead be the subject of interviews with key organizational informants.

Step 2: Development of a resource allocation database

According to an outside-in approach, relevant material can be taken from multiple sources of evi-

dence such as company documents (e.g., annual reports, road shows), business press articles, and

various external research sources (e.g., analyst reports, databases). In order to ensure the validity

of collected data, different organizational informants (e.g., from the strategic planning depart-

ment) should review all records and correct factual errors (Stake, 1995; Yin, 1994). In addition,

information from different phases of fieldwork, different points in the temporal cycles occurring

in the setting or accounts of different organizational informants should be compared and inte-

grated in a systematic data collection effort ("data triangulation").

The extraordinary amount of data extracted from a longitudinal study necessitates the creation of

a structured database. Format, context, and degree of information obviously vary among the dif-

ferent data sources. A database enables the transformation of heterogeneous data into a joint for-

mat and supports data collection, processing, analysis, and storage. Van de Ven’s experience with

the Minnesota Innovation Research Project provides some important guidelines for developing

such a database as well as how to direct the underlying iterative research process (Poole, Van de

Ven, et al., 2000; Van de Ven, Polley, et al., 1999; Van de Ven & Poole, 1995).

Step 3: Transformation of raw data and coding

First of all, raw data must be sorted and transformed into records. Only meaningful empirical ob-

servations, so-called "incidents", are captured in a database. For instance, only activities that af-

fect the allocation of tangible resources are recorded. Such incidents are entered as unique obser-

vations in the form of a bracketed string of words. They must capture the basic elements of in-

formation about discrete activities. Usually, incident descriptions taken from publicly available

sources (e.g., articles, press releases) are too long to be entered directly into the database. Their

wording must be adjusted and streamlined.

In order to ensure systematic data gathering and ease data analysis, incidents need to be coded:

"One way to organize these multidimensional data into a format to analyze change processes is to

array them on multiple tracks which correspond to conceptually meaningful categories" (Van de

Ven & Poole, 1995: 323; see also Holsti, 1969: 94). These categories should be exhaustive and

mutually exclusive (Krippendorff, 1980: 75; Weber, 1985: 23).7 In line with Van de Ven’s

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(1995) work, pre-defined tracks can be used as "pigeonholes" (Holsti, 1969: 95) for the coding of

resource allocation data (see Figure 2).8 Tracks are to be respecified and fine-tuned over the

course of time, but their development is generally a top-down process (Poole, Van de Ven et al.

1999). In order to increase their validity (Holsti, 1969; Kidder, 1981; Yin, 1993), all tracks

should be discussed with research collegues and organizational informants. In addition, coding

rules and instructions must be tested for reliability with independent observers. They should con-

tain all information that is needed to replicate the data making process with different individuals

(Krippendorff, 1980: 71).9

The coding structure acts as a meta-analytic framework for the researcher. Entering an investiga-

tion with such a structure is in line with the strategy process research methods used by other

scholars (Eisenhardt, 1995; Hart, 1992; Pettigrew, 1992, 1995, 1997; Van de Ven et al., 1999).

However, it is contrary to the grounded theory approach developed by sociologists Barney Glaser

and Anselm Strauss (see Glaser 1978, 1992; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss, 1987, 1994; Strauss

& Corbin, 1990, 1994, 1998). They postulate a continuous comparison of data and theory, begin-

ning with data collection. Theoretical categories are not pre-defined; they solely emerge from

empirical evidence.

1. Type of action (e.g., investment, budgeting, alliances, divestments)

2. State of action (implemented vs. intended/planned)

3. Transaction volume in million currency units

4. Affected resource type (financial, physical, human, organizational, technological)

5. Decision making level(s) primarily involved in resource allocation decision (board, divi-

sional, operational)

6. Acting business unit(s) within multibusiness firm

7. Affected business unit(s) within multibusiness firm

8. Affected region(s) (e.g., Europe, America, Africa, Asia/Pacific)

9. Affected function(s) (e.g., corporate center, marketing/sales, production)

Figure 2: Coding tracks

The transformation of raw data into incidents and the coding of these incidents do not only sig-

nificantly reduce the amount of data, but also allow putting qualitative data into a numerical

form. This procedure is a widely used research technique in social science (Holsti, 1969; Krip-

pendorff, 1980; Weber, 1985). Each coded incident is entered into the database as a record. Fol-

lowing Van de Ven & Poole (1995), indicators can be used to transform each record into di-

chotomous variables. Indicators are derived from the tracks used for the coding of incidents.

Variables with the value "1" represent the existence of a given indicator; the value "0" represents

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its absence. The quantification of qualitative data permits statistical analysis. For example, fre-

quency distributions or regression analysis can be used to investigate relationships among the

variables observed during the data collection process. This quantification of qualitative data is

contrary to Glaser & Strauss’ grounded theory approach: "In speaking about qualitative analysis,

we are referring not to the quantifying of qualitative data but rather to the nonmathematical proc-

ess of interpretation, carried out for the purpose of discovering concepts and relationships in raw

data and then organizing these into a theoretical explanatory scheme" (Glaser & Corbin, 1998:

11).

Step 4: Identification of process patterns and preliminary hypotheses

The relevance of a single incident or a chain of incidents to the process under investigation must

be investigated. The same incidents may be encoded in different ways and utilized as constituents

of different events. Thus, the interpretation of patterns, for example how and why incidents ap-

pear in particular chronological sequences or socially meaningful time cycles, is required (Petti-

grew, 1995: 100).

Executives usually do not make business level decisions. They establish instead an internal con-

text that shapes the preparation, championing, and approval of decisions made by managers in the

business units (Collis & Montgomery, 1997: 134). While executives design internal context com-

ponents in order to steer management behavior throughout the organization, lower level managers

try to adjust the internal context to better deal with business realities at the same time. In this re-

gard, Burgelman (1983) talks about a top-down driven context determination process leading to

induced strategic behavior and a bottom-up driven context determination process that is primarily

based on autonomous strategic behavior.

Description and analysis of strategic behavior require answers to the question as to when and

how far decisions and activities concerning resource allocation deviate from the publicly an-

nounced corporate strategy.10 In this regard, the category "Corporate Strategy Consistency" is

useful. This category reflects the consistency between resource allocation activities and the offi-

cially announced corporate strategy of large diversified firms. In order to assign incidents to this

category, the core elements of the announced corporate strategy that have been presented to the

public (e.g., via road show, annual report, or other forms of corporate presentations) need to be

outlined in a separate document. Researchers should confirm this announced corporate strategy

outside-in by triangulating several data sources. This document finally serves as benchmark for

the assessment of resource allocation incidents. Each incident is rated11 whenever an assessment

can be made at all, as to whether it is in line with or contrary to the announced corporate strategy.

In order to rate the consistency level of resource allocation decisions a rank-ordered indicator

variable on a scale from one to four can be used.

1. Contradiction: The resource allocation decision contradicts the intent of the announced

corporate strategy.

2. Modification: The resource allocation decision deviates from the intent of the announced

corporate strategy.

3. Conformity: The resource allocation decision confroms to the intend of the announced cor-

porate strategy.

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4. Compliance: The resource allocation decision executes the announced corporate strategy.

The Corporate Strategy Consistency category contains dichotomous alternatives (Holsti 1969:

138) and is rendered exhaustive by adding the rating option "Unknown" (see Krippendorf 1980:

75). The rating is based on a comparison of each decision with the announced corporate strategy

of the company where the decision was taken. In order to force assessors to decide in favor of

either a "consistent" or an "inconsistent" rating, a Likert-type 5 or 7 grade scale should be con-

sciously avoided. Individual resource allocation decisions are rated as inconsistent with the an-

nounced corporate strategy if they were in outright contradiction to it or represent a modification

of it. On the contrary, resource allocation decisions are rated as consistent if they are either con-

forming to the announced corporate strategy or if they can even be interpreted as an evident act of

implementing the announced corporate strategy.

In order to produce results as objective as possible, a conservative rating procedure should be ap-

plied. This means that in cases where a clear positive or negative relationship between the an-

nounced corporate strategy and the decision concerned cannot be established, the observation is

dropped from the analysis. The rating is done by at least two observers acting independently. If

they disagree on a rating, a third assessor should mediate between the two. Only when a decision

on a joint rating can be reached, the observation is included in the subsequent analysis; otherwise

it is eliminated.

Rating results and underlying assumptions should be reviewed the with organizational informants

in order to ensure the validity of the rating. Developing a handbook with instructions for the rat-

ing procedure helps ensuring that individual assessments are based on the same rationale. While a

single rated incident is not very important for the research findings, hundreds of observations

give clear indications as to whether resource allocations are consistent with the announced corpo-

rate strategy over time or whether there is inconsistency between actual resource allocation deci-

sions and the announced corporate strategy. Of course, a firm can announce a particular corporate

strategy and then allocate its resources differently, which could be intentional or not. In the latter

case, resource allocation could result from social or political processes that deviate from the

given corporate strategy.

Rated incident data can easily be transformed into spreadsheet format. Graphing data helps iden-

tify and compare structural patterns in time-sequence data, such as cycles, turning points, or

breakpoints. In any case, the analysis of the output data allows the researcher to identify event

streams and crucial phases within the development of resource allocation processes over time.

The identification of breakpoints is especially critical for discovering transitions between cycles

of activities. Breakpoints are an indicator for the pacing of activities and possible linkages among

them (Van de Ven & Poole, 1995: 180). They enable the researcher to derive early hypotheses

that can be challenged in interviews with key organizational informants.

Step 5: Validation of collected data and preliminary hypotheses in interviews

Results from the quantitative outside-in analysis and early hypotheses build the starting point for

the first series of structured interviews with key organizational informants. Managers are inter-

viewed on multiple hierarchical levels, such as the executive board, divisional management

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(based on product or region), functional specialists (e.g., marketing, strategic planning), and cen-

tral staff (e.g., human resources, corporate planning). In addition, interviews should include op-

erational managers down the line who make resource allocation decisions on a day-to-day basis.

The primary goal of these interviews is to challenge the preliminary hypotheses derived from the

outside-in analysis. At the same time, records derived from publicly available sources and inci-

dent ratings can be checked in terms of factual correctness and reliability. Comments, remarks,

and anecdotes from interview partners can be used to confirm, revise, and complement prelimi-

nary data entries, as well as to check whether assumptions on connections drawn among individ-

ual incidents are plausible (Poole et al., 2000).

Questions should be asked in the interviews about the causes and consequences of events within

identified process patterns. Quick access to incidents around breakpoints during discussions

about preliminary findings is useful. Thus it is helpful to include database reports in these discus-

sions. Reports extract data from the database and list records by selected sorting criteria (e.g., by

date or transaction volume).

Step 6: Consolidation of findings through iterative process

A series of interviews must be conducted in order to derive conclusions from the case study. The

first set of interviews helps define new data analysis needs and adjust initial hypotheses. It can be

seen as the beginning of an iterative process between data analysis, hypothesis development/ ad-

justment, and interviews that finally lead to conclusions from case study research (Yin, 1994).

This process is in line with Corbin & Strauss (1998) who argued that "hypotheses and proposi-

tions derived from data must be continuously checked out against incoming data and modified,

extended, or deleted if necessary" (Glaser & Corbin, 1998: 22).

Illustration of proposed methodological approach

The introduced six-step methodological approach was developed within the frame of an in-depth

study of resource allocation decisions at the Swiss pharmaceutical company Novartis respectively

its two principal predecessor organizations, Ciba and Sandoz. These two companies were the

largest pharmaceutical and chemical companies in Switzerland prior to their merger on December

20, 1996. Novartis became the second largest corporation in Europe, and second largest pharma-

ceutical company in the world. The merger was the first that exceeded USD 30 billion in transac-

tion volume. It had a lasting effect on the structure of the pharmaceutical industry, especially in

Europe, and set the stage for a new wave of mega-mergers (see Schmidt & Ruehli, 2002).

Our longitudinal analysis of Ciba and Sandoz was conducted as a retrospective case study cover-

ing the period from 1989 to the beginning of 1996. 1989 was an ideal starting point for the study,

due to the fact that in this year both firms developed new corporate strategies that were not for-

mally revised until the merger took place. We focused the empirical study on the development of

Ciba’s and Sandoz’s healthcare divisions (including Pharma, Consumer Health, Generics and

Ciba Vision), which in both companies were the most important corporate divisions in terms of

profit, sales and top management attention. The analysis covered only those divisions that were

kept after the merger. For instance, the development of Ciba Diagnostics, Vaccine, and Zyma

was not considered.

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Using publicly available data from annual reports, company magazines (e.g. Sandoz Bulletin),

newspapers (e.g. Financial Times, Wall Street Journal, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Basler Zeitung),

trade publications (e.g. Chemical Week, Pharma Market Scanner) and analyst reports (e.g. CSFB,

Morgan Stanley), we collected identifiable resource allocation decisions for the period under con-

sideration. Information on the context and characteristics of the resource allocation decisions was

coded and entered into a data base. In total, information on more than 880 resource allocation de-

cisions was gathered in this way. In addition, access to respective corporate strategy statements of

the companies concerned was obtained through press announcements and CEO speeches.

Incident coding.

Figure 3: Sample incident in Resourcer® database (screenshot) Coding track number

Within our in-depth case study nine observation tracks (see Figure 3) have been narrowed to be

specific and easy to apply (see Weber 1985: 23). In order to increase their validity (Holsti 1969;

Kidder 1981; Yin 1993) all tracks have been discussed with research colleagues and organiza-

tional informants. In addition, coding rules and instructions were tested for reliability with inde-

pendent observers and recorded in a handbook. Latter contains all information that is needed to

replicate the data making process with different individuals (according to Krippendorf 1980: 71).

8 976

5

4

1

3

2

Board of directors plans to invest CHF 500 million in biotech collaborations over a period of 5-years

Krauer has scrapped a traditionally cautious policy on acquisitions and recently started to close gaps in the company's technology base

Corp. Strategy Consistency

12

Figure 3 exemplifies the systematic collection of resource allocation incidents with the use of the

Resourcer® database.

12 Incident number 5293 contains information (Description) from the Wall

Street Journal (Source). The Journal reported on August 14, 1995 (Date) that Ciba (Company)

had committed to invest (Track 1: Type of action) CHF 500 million (Track 3: Transaction vol-

ume) in various biotechnology companies over a five-year period. Given that the incident con-

tains a planned investment it is coded as "intended" action (Track 2: State of action). Alternative

to "investment" the following options from the drop-down menu can specify a resource allocation

activity of a single incident: "Asset sell-off", "capacity reduction", "closure", "cooperation", "di-

vestment", "HR change", "improvement efforts", "internal structural change", "marketing",

"management buyout", "resource transfer", "spin-off" and "others". The text in the field Com-

ment indicates that the planned investment in Technology/Know-how resources (Track 4: Re-

source type) was triggered by the board level (Track 5: Decision making level) and should affect

all biotech related divisions (Track 6 and 7: Acting unit and affected units) of Ciba's healthcare

business worldwide (Track 8: Affected regions). Especially the Research & Development units

(Track 9: Affected functions) in the respective divisions would be affected when the intended in-

cident is de facto implemented. If an incident relates to other incidents captured in the database

(which is not the case in our sample incident in Figure 3) the number of a related predecessor in-

cident can be inserted in the respective field (see Figure 3). This function of the database con-

nects related incidents with each other and enables the researcher to build logic chains or incident

paths through the data.

Incident rating. Besides the coding of incident along pre-defined tracks we were interested in the

level of consistency between the announced corporate strategy and the actual resource allocation

decisions taken. We used a rank-ordered indicator variable to rate the consistency level of indi-

vidual decisions on a scale from one to four (see above, pp. 11f). The rating was based on a com-

parison of each decision with the announced corporate strategy of the company where the deci-

sion was taken. For instance, Ciba's commitment to invest 500 million Swiss Francs in various

biotechnology companies over a five-year period (incident number 5293 in Figure 3) was rated as

"modification" (negative-low relationship) compared to the initially announced corporate strategy

since it was clearly deviating from the company’s explicitly cautious policy on acquisitions, but

was on the other hand aiming to strengthen the company’s technological competencies in bio-

technology. In this respect the decision was at least to a certain degree in line with the announced

corporate strategy. Therefore it was only rated as "modification" (negative-high relationship) in-

stead of "contradiction" (negative-high relationship). Resource allocation decisions were rated

consistent if they were either conforming to the announced corporate strategy (positive-low rela-

tionship) or if they could even be interpreted as an evident act of implementing/complying to the

announced corporate strategy (positive-high relationship).

In order to produce results as objective as possible, we used a conservative rating strategy. In

more than 250 cases (from a total of 864 observations) where a clear positive or negative rela-

tionship between the announced corporate strategy and the decision concerned could not be es-

tablished, the observation was dropped from the analysis. The rating was done by two observ-

ers/raters acting independently. The interrater reliability13 was high given that they agreed in

more than 90 per cent of the cases on a single rating. If they disagreed, a third assessor sought to

mediate between the two. Only when a decision on a joint rating could be reached easily, was the

observation included in the subsequent analysis; otherwise it was eliminated. After excluding fur-

ther observations due to missing values for the independent variables, 493 individual resource

13

allocation decisions formed the basis for our analysis. The number of resource allocation deci-

sions included in our analysis at Ciba and Sandoz, at 241 and 236 respectively, was virtually the

same.

In order to ensure validity and reliability (Stake, 1995; Yin, 1993, 1994) we reviewed our data

records, the logic and understandability of the pre-defined tracks, the incident coding and rating

system and rules, and all chronologically sorted incidents with both key organizational infor-

mants and research colleagues. We revised several codings and ratings according to their com-

ments, and made them more detailed if necessary. In addition, further resource allocation actions

were added to the database. We displayed the distribution of selected variables for the purpose of

identifying and comparing event streams and structural patterns in the Ciba and Sandoz resource

allocation data. With the help of frequency distributions and linear regressions, we were able to

derive initial hypotheses on the nature and implication of important breakpoints or turning points

within the sequence data (see the paragraph below).

In order to understand how and why certain strategic resource allocation processes changed over

time and which internal and external circumstances were influencing these changes, we con-

ducted 30 face-to-face interviews with former Ciba and Sandoz executives and employees from

corporate functions, divisional and operational management (equally distributed among the cate-

gories and firms). Including frequency distribution charts and reports (e.g., chronological listing

of incidents) from the Resourcer® database as backup in these interviews turned out to be very

useful. These materials helped identify particular events and assisted in explaining which facts

had led to particular hypotheses. An illustration of one sequence data analysis conducted in the

study is provided by the evaluation of Sandoz’s output data, i.e. of the consistency between San-

doz’s resource allocation and its announced corporate strategy between 1989 and 1995.

14

Figure 4: Relative frequency distribution of rated incidents from Sandoz (1989-1995)

Figure 4 shows the relative distribution of consistency between resource allocation activities in

the healthcare department and Sandoz’s announced corporate strategy. A mean value of ”100%”

on the y-axis represents full consistency ( inconsistency) between resource allocation actions and

the announced corporate strategy in effect at the time, e.g., all collected incidents are in line with

(against) the announced corporate strategy (see e.g. full consistency in 1990).

In this case, incident ratings were aggregated on an annual basis. We used unweighted averages

according to Van de Ven (1995) in order to keep data unbiased at the outset. However, given that

we used the same data gathering sources for the entire period (1989-1995) an indirect weighting

took place. Large investment decisions usually receive more public attention than do smaller re-

source allocations transactions. As a result, larger investment decisions consist of a number of

incidents that are reflected in publicly available sources.

Looking at the development of Sandoz’s resource allocation decisisons the consistency value it-

self is not per se meaningful. Rather it is important to look at the development over time. For in-

stance, a major turning point can be identified from 1992 to 1993 (see Figure 4). The first period,

from 1989 to 1992, is characterized by a higher, more continuous strategy consistency as com-

pared to the second period (1993 to 1995). During the first period, there was a public statement

on the focus on research-intensive areas and the emphasis on innovation for the divisions. Stated

innovation intentions were backed up by strategic investments in biotechnology and genetic en-

gineering, as well as by external growth. They were continuously pursued until the merger with

Ciba. The decisive step towards a life science focus took place in early 1993. The health depart-

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 0

100%

50%

Consistent resource allocation decisions

(positive-high and -low) in %

Inconsistent resource allocation deci-

sions (negative-high and -low) in %

15

ment‘s decision to form a life science group was consistently pursued by the group management

until 1995. Figure 4 clearly indicates that a shift in direction took place in 1993.

With the help of the database reports (e.g., list of incident descriptions in chronological order), a

detailed understanding of which resource allocation processes led to a sharp change in strategic

behavior in the healthcare divisions in 1993 was possible. For example, there were numerous

modifications of organizational structures and processes. Through the interviews it became evi-

dent that changes in organizational resource allocations were consciously taken in order to sup-

port the creation of a life-science group. The announced coporate strategy from Sandoz during

the early 1990s was therefore not revised in any fundamental way. There was, however, a shift in

priorities concerning innovation in promising areas. Furthermore, important personnel changes

were made on top-management level in the course of the restructuring taking place in 1993.

Figure 5: Relative frequency distribution of rated incidents from Ciba (1989-1995)

Looking at the development of Ciba’s resource allocation over time (Figure 5), a major turning

point in the resource allocation development can be identified from 1993 to 1994. This is not sur-

prising, given that developing cooperation with leading research institutes had been declared a

prerequisite for the long-term success of the pharma division in 1994. This move contrasted

sharply with the announced corporate strategy (called Vision 2000) which had been introduced in

1989 and which was not publicly revoked until the merger. Vision 2000 placed major emphasis

on internal growth. Although the investment in external cooperations, minority shares, and acqui-

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 0

100%

50%

Consistent resource allocation decisions

(positive-high and -low) in %

Inconsistent resource allocation deci-

sions (negative-high and -low) in %

16

sitions in the healthcare divisions increased dramatically in 1994/95, Ciba’s executives did not

officially revise the initially announced corporate strategy.

The applied methodological approach allows a comparison of Ciba’s and Sandoz’s resource allo-

cation process development over time. From an analysis of Figure 4 it is apparent that Sandoz’s

resource allocation activities on an aggregate level show a higher consistency with its announced

corporate strategy. With the help of the Resourcer® database, it is possible to analyze single com-

ponents of this corporate strategy alignment. For instance, it is possible to focus on the type of

resources affected (e.g., financial), the transaction volume or type of transaction (e.g., acquisi-

tions) in order to gain deeper insights into underlying factors that influence the consistency of

resource allocation activities with the announced corporate strategy.

Discussion

The outlined methodological approach permits a wide variety of data analyses. Data can be seg-

mented in various ways to take "deep dives" into causes and effects of strategy process patterns.

For instance, the factors (e.g., type of resource, transaction size) having an impact on strategy

process development at different points in time can be investigated. Interviews can help to verify

turning points that might indicate the beginning or end of definition and impetus phases within

corporate development (see Burgelman, 1994; Noda & Bower, 1996). In addition, the compara-

bility of case data allows the usage of financial benchmarks (e.g., industry-adjusted share prices)

to discover performance implications of turning points and breakpoints within strategy processes.

Contribution. While the coding and transformation of qualitative data into numeric data goes

back to widely used procedures, the introduction of the "Corporate Strategy Consistency" vari-

able and the rating of the consistency between resource allocation activities and the announced

corporate strategy represents a new methodological advance. At the same time, our analysis of

consistency is linked to an intense debate in strategic management research about the relationship

between "organizational alignment" or "fit" and performance (see e.g., Burgelman & Grove,

1996; Grant, 2001; Powell, 1992; Venkatraman & Camillus, 1984). Thus, it corresponds to re-

searchers’ quest for strategy process information that is tightly linked to strategy outcomes

(Chakravarthy & White, 2001; Pettigrew, 1995). In principle, researchers have to rely on discrete

incidents to a certain degree if action research cannot be conducted. These incidents are static in

nature. However, investigating them over time provides clues for the underlying dynamics in the

strategy process.

The presented methodological approach contributes to knowledge generation by combining reli-

able approaches within strategy process research. It allows a systematic recording and evaluation

of publicly available data before quantitative findings are effectively used in structured inter-

views with key organizational informants. The discussion of turning points or breakpoints from

prior analysis of sequence data catches the immediate attention of interviewees. It keeps inter-

views short and to the point. Furthermore, fact-based and well documented hypotheses make it

difficult for interviewees to refute assumptions without backing up their statements.

Limitations. Of course, our proposed methodological approach has its own shortcomings. First, it

has drawbacks that generally accompany case study research. It is hard to generalize case study

findings across contexts. Accordingly, case study researchers have to make sure that an inde-

17

pendent researcher would draw identical conclusions from the same data. They also have to en-

sure that they identify critical causalities. These concerns are widely recognized and discussed in

the literature (see Kidder, 1981; Kirk & Miller, 1986; Numagami, 1998; Stake, 1995, 2000; Yin,

1981, 1993, 1994).

Second, we take a particular point of view by focusing on resource allocation activities. We as-

sume that strategies are implemented via resource allocation decisions in organizations. However,

strategy processes cannot be captured in their entirety, including individual thought processes and

interactive politically shaped decision making activities. In order to deal with the complexity of

the issues investigated, it is necessary to assume a particular perspective on the strategy process.

Third, our methodological approach follows a positivistic research tradition that has guided a

substantive body of prior organizational studies (Prasad & Prasad, 2002). We are fully aware of

the criticisms of ontological and epistemological assumptions such as the “giveness of reality or

experience, and the researcher’s objectivity, separation, and neutrality vis-à-vis her or his object

of inquiry” (Prasad & Prasad, 2002: 5). We have taken a postpositivist view as it provides a good

starting point to cope with this criticism. Postpositivists argue that social reality is only imper-

fectly and probabilistically apprehendable. A falsification of hypotheses is possible through com-

bining quantitative and qualitative methods (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Given that an extended

discussion of the "pros" and "cons" of different research genres in social science is beyond the

scope of this paper, we refer to e.g., Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Morgan,

1983; Prasad & Prasad, 2002.

Fourth, if longitudinal case studies are conducted from a retrospective perspective, similar issues

to the ones usually brought to the fore in historical research arise (see e.g., Evans, 1997; Kendrick

et al., 1990; Prasad & Eylon, 2001), although we look at events that took place in the much more

immediate past than is usually the case in historical analysis. Our outside-in analysis of secon-

dary data assumes that process patterns with causal regularities can be found retrospectively. Past

events always have multiple causes while a researcher runs the danger of concentrating on only

on a few. In order to cope with inexhaustible secondary data, a selection is unavoidable (Kieser,

1994). However, researchers using our methodological approach should identify several factors

as possible causes for a past event (e.g., turning point in resource allocation development). They

have to clarify in interviews with key organizational informants whether a single cause is suffi-

cient to explain a past event or whether several causes have to be regarded as complementary.

Along these lines, Kieser argues: “The identification of possible causes as real ones and their

classification as sufficient or complementary ones is the task of a critical examination of histori-

cal sources” (1994: 618). Another problem with a retrospective view arises when prior knowl-

edge of the success or failure of strategic change events biases research findings. In order to cope

with this problem, it is advisable to “initiate historical study before the outcomes of a strategic

change process become known” (Van de Ven, 1992: 181), if possible.

Future research and management implications. In the future, real progress in strategy process re-

search will come from teams engaged in a program of longitudinal research (see Chakravarthy &

White, 2001: 201). Conducting multiple case studies based on the same methodology would pro-

vide great opportunities for theory development. It would be interesting to investigate the per-

formance impact of strategy process development over time with such a collaborative effort. For

instance, consistency between actual resource allocation and the announced corporate strategy (as

measured with the output variable) and whether this leads to abnormal returns could be exam-

18

ined. There are already indicators in the strategic management literature that positive perform-

ance effects emanate from alignment between corporate strategy and internal context parameters.

In this regard, Bettis & Prahalad (1995) argue that a linkage between the ”dominant logic” (of

where and how to compete) and firm performance most likely exists through a fit between strate-

gic and structural context components. Grant (2001) also elucidates the importance of fit between

strategy, resources/capabilities, organizational structure, management systems, and style.

Insights gained from this kind of research are interesting not only from a social science point of

view, but also in terms of managerial practice. The methodological approach enables a detailed

insight into strategy processes from an outside-in perspective and can therefore be used for con-

trolling purposes on executive board level. Results from strategy process analysis can be taken

into meetings with the executive management. They can support substantive inquiries geared to-

ward gaining in-depth insights that are more informative than formal presentations. Potential in-

formation asymmetries can therefore be eliminated or at least reduced.

The overall goal of the methodological approach introduced here is to provide a foundation for

comparative strategy process research alternative or supplementary to action research. The intro-

duced web-enabled database provides the opportunity for collective/international research efforts

irrespective of local nearness. Today, we face methodological pluralism in the field but lack a

standard set of empirical research methods. In general, longitudinal case studies promise to pro-

vide some answers to the question of how strategic change emerges, develops, grows, and termi-

nates over time. However, applied research designs and measures trying to answer this question

vary at this time. It is hard to compare case study findings with each other. Comparability is re-

quired to identify and challenge observed process patterns that can be used as starting points for

theory development.

Notes

1 See e.g., Bower, 1997; Chakravarty, Mueller-Stewens et al. 2002; Chakravarty & White,

2001; Garvin, 1998; Mintzberg & Quinn, 1998; Papadakatis & Barwise, 1997; Pettigrew,

1997.

2 See e.g., Scandinavian Journal of Management 1997.

3 See e.g., Innovating Strategy Processes: Concepts, Experiences & Experiments, SMS Mini-

Conference, Connecticut, May 2003. Shaping, Implementing and Changing Strategies, SMS

Mini-Conference, St. Gallen, May 2001; Strategic Thinking – Decision Making and Strategy

Process (Track 7), 18th Annual International Conference of the Strategic Management Soci-

ety, Orlando, November 1998.

4 See e.g., Strategy Process Research Workshop, INSEAD, Fontainebleau, June 1998, August

2003. In addition, since 2003 the Strategic Management Society established a Strategy Process

track to its annual conference.

5 The Minnesota Innovation Research Project, a multidisciplinary research project at the Uni-

versity of Minnesota, was initiated by Van de Ven and colleagues in 1982. The project in-

cludes a total of fourteen different longitudinal studies on innovation processes in various pub-

19

lic and private enterprises. Numerous scientific publications have emerged from the MIRP

(see inter alias Garud & Van de Ven, 2000; Van de Ven & Poole, 1995; Ven, et al. 1999).

6 For an extensive discussion of different traditions in the field of qualitative research see

Dencin & Lincoln, 2000; Morgan, 1983; Staeblein, 1996; Vidich & Lyman, 1996).

7 "Exhaustive refers to the ability of the of a data language to represent all recording units,

without exeption. (…) Mutually exclusive refers to the ability of data language to make clear

distinctions among the phenomena to be recorded" (Krippendorff, 1980: 75).

8 Van de Ven & Poole (1995) distinguished the following tracks to code innovation incidents:

"People, ideas, transactions, context, outcome" (Van de Ven & Poole, 1995: 170).

9 There is no single solution for defining an acceptable level of reliability: "Reliability is a nec-

essary condition for valid inquiry, but paradoxically, the costs of some steps taken to increase

reliability may be a reduction in validity" (Holsti, 1969: 142). For an extended discussion of

that topic see Kerlinger, 1964; Krippendorff, 1980; Weber, 1985.

10 Following Grant (2001: 24) corporate strategy defines "the scope of the firm in terms of the

industries and markets in which it competes. Corporate strategy decisions include investment

in diversification, vertical integration, acquisitions, and new ventures, the allocation of re-

sources between different businesses of the firm, and divestments".

11 The term "rating" is used in order to differentiate the assessment of the consistence between

resource allocations and the announced corporate strategy from the coding procedure dis-

cussed before. In statistical terms, a rating usually suggests an ordinal scale.

12 The database was developed for the purpose of managing empirical research with a number of

longitudinal case studies. It is based on Oracle® database technology and programmed in

Java®. Working with such a web-enabled database provides the opportunity for collective re-

search efforts irrespective of local nearness.

13 Interrater agreements were measured according to Jones et al. 1983.

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Liste der seit Januar 1993 am Institut für Betriebswirtschaft erschienenen Diskussionsbei-träge

Papers which have appeared since 1993

Nr. 1 Krüger, W./Müller-Stewens, G. - Matching Acquisition Policy and Integration Style, St. Gallen, Januar 1993

Nr. 2 Müller-Stewens, G./Spickers, J. - Akquisitionsmanagement als Organisation des Wan-dels, St. Gallen, Januar 1993

Nr. 3 Gomez, P./Rüegg-Stürm, J. - Controlling im Dienste der Wertsteigerung der Unternehmung, St. Gallen, Januar 1993

Nr. 4 Strasser, G. - Wissensmanagement - Forschungsprojekt zur Handhabung fundamen-talen Wandels in grossen Unternehmen, St. Gallen, November 1993

Nr. 5 Strasser, G. - Die Bedeutung soziologischen Wissens bei der empirischen Analyse organisatorischer Lernprozesse, St. Gallen, Januar 1994

Nr. 6 Strasser, G. - Wandel, Lernen von Organisationen, Wissensmanagement, St. Gallen, Januar 1994

Nr. 7 Strasser, G. - The New Winners?-Project: Engendering, Enhancing and Measuring Fundamental Corporate Transformation Processes, St. Gallen, April 1994

Nr. 8 Malioukova, I./Strasser, G. - Bericht einer Interviewanalyse: Brauchen Unternehmen Revolutionen? St. Gallen, April 1994

Nr. 9 Weber, B. - Unternehmensnetzwerke aus systemtheoretischer Sicht, St. Gallen, Juni 1994

Nr. 10 Schwaninger, M. - Stand der Entwicklung und Tendenzen der Managementforschung. Ein Beitrag aus systemtheoretischer Sicht, St. Gallen, Juli 1994

Nr. 11 Schwaninger, M. - Control - A Systems Perspective, St. Gallen, August 1994

Nr. 12 Schüppel, J. - Organisationslernen und Wissensmanagement, St. Gallen, August 1994

Nr. 13 Strasser, G. - Wandel von Unternehmen und Revolution - Variationen über eine radi-kale Vorstellung von Veränderungen im grossen Unternehmen, St. Gallen, September 1994

Nr. 14 Schwaninger, M. - Die intelligente Organisation als lebensfähige Heterarchie, St. Gallen, September 1994

Nr. 15 Binder, V./Kantowsky, J. - Potentialorientiertes Management - Eine Standortbestim-mung, St. Gallen, Februar 1995

Nr. 16 Schüppel, J. - Das „MB-Erfolgsprogramm“ bei der Mercedes-Benz AG - Fallstudie, St. Gallen, Mai 1995

26

Nr. 17 Schwaninger, M. - Lernende Unternehmungen - Strukturen für organisationale Intelli-genz und Kreativität, St. Gallen, Oktober 1995

Nr. 18 Schwaninger, M./Espejo, R. - Recursive Management: A Key to Organizational Fitness, St. Gallen, November 1995

Nr. 19 Schwaninger, M. - Systemtheorie - Eine Einführung für Führungskräfte, Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschafter, St. Gallen, 2. Auflage Januar 1998

Nr. 20 Schwaninger, M. - Structures for Intelligent Organizations, St. Gallen, February 1996

Nr. 21 Müller-Stewens, G./Aschwanden C. - Überlegungen zur Rolle der Informations-technologie im Aufgabengebiet von Führungskräften, St. Gallen, April 1996

Nr. 22 Schwaninger, M. - Integrative Systems Methodology: Framework and Application, St. Gallen, June 1996

Nr. 23 Kriwet, C./von Krogh G.F. - Corporate Ethnography, St. Gallen, November 1996

Nr. 24 von Krogh G.F./Mahnke, V. - Managing Knowledge in International Allicances, St. Gallen, April 1997

Nr. 25 Müller-Stewens, G./Radel, T. - Allianzensysteme als Spieler auf dem globalen Telekommunikationsmarkt: Kampf der Giganten oder emperors without empires?, St. Gallen, Juli 1997

Nr. 25 (e) Müller-Stewens, G./Radel, T. - Battle of the Giants: The Evolution of Global Alliances in the Telecommunications Industry, St. Gallen, revised and translated 2nd ed., May 1998

Nr. 26 Müller-Stewens, G./Radel, T. - Branchendynamik und Veränderungsnotwendigkeit: Das Beispiel der Telekommunikationsbranche, St. Gallen, Juli 1997

Nr. 27 Mahnke, V.- What is Knowledge-Intensive Business and What is not? Developing the base-case of a strategic theory of the firm that relates knowledge to above normal re-turns, St. Gallen, August 1997

Nr. 28 Aadne, J.H./Kleine, D./Mahnke, V./Venzin, M. - In Search of Inspiration: How manag-ers, consultants and academics interact while exploring business strategy concepts, St. Gallen, October 1997

Nr. 29 Schwaninger, M. - Bausteine für ein Unternehmungsmodell, St. Gallen, November 1997

Nr. 30 Mahnke, V. - Knowledge-Intensive Business as Puzzlement for Contractual Theories of the Firm, St. Gallen, Dezember 1997

[Nr. 31 Schwaninger, M. - Intelligent Organizations – The Ecological Dimension, St. Gallen, October 1998 - nicht erschienen]

Nr. 32 Schwaninger, M. - Are Organizations Too Complex To Be Understood? - Towards a Framework for Intelligent Organizations, St. Gallen, October 1998

27

Nr. 33 Müller-Stewens, G./Lechner, Ch. - Strategische Prozessforschung: Zentrale Fragestel-lungen und Entwicklungstendenzen, St. Gallen, August 1999

Nr. 34 Szeless, G./Wiersema, M.F./Müller-Stewens, G. - Relatedness and Firm Performance in European Firms: A Comparison of Related Entropy and Resource-Based Relatedness, St. Gallen, January 2000

Nr. 35 Schwaninger, M. - Das Modell Lebensfähiger Systeme. Ein Strukturmodell für organisationale Intelligenz, Lebensfähigkeit und Entwicklung, Mai 2000

Nr. 36 + e Rüegg-Stürm, J. - Was ‚ist‘ eine Unternehmung? - nicht mehr als DB erhältlich, fand Eingang in die Publikation „Das neue St. Galler Management-Modell. Grundkategorien einer integrierten Managementlehre: Der HSG-Ansatz“, Bern: Haupt 2002. ISBN 3-258-06534-9. Entglisch: The New St. Gallen Management Model. Basic Categories of an Approach to Integrated Management, New York: Palgrave McMillan, 2005 ISBN 1-4039-3631-5. Erhältlich in Buchhandlungen

Nr. 37 Schwaninger, M./Körner, M. - Managing Complex Development Projects: A Systemic Toolkit Based on the St. Gall Management Framework, November 2000

Nr. 38 Schwaninger, M. - A Theory for Optimal Organization, November 2000

Nr. 39 Spickers, J./Lechner, Ch. - Kernkompetenzen und organisationale Fähigkeiten als Management-Herausforderung. Diskussionsbeitrag Nr. 39, Dezember 2000 (nicht er-schienen)

Nr. 40 Spickers, J./Strasser, G. - Leitfaden zur systemischen Diagnose der Befindlichkeit von Organisa-tionen - ein Beitrag zur Operationalisierung von „Unternehmenskultur“. Diskussionsbeitrag Nr. 40, Dezember 2000 (nicht erschienen)

Nr. 41 Schwaninger, M. - Implizites Wissen und Managementlehre: Organisationskyber-netische Sicht, November 2000

Nr. 42 Rüegg-Stürm, J. /Gritsch, L. – Ungewissheit und Stabilitiät in Veränderungsprozessen. Zur Bedeutung von Ritualen in tiefgreifenden Veränderungsprozessen von Unterneh-mungen, März 2001

Nr. 43 Schwaninger, M./Körner M. – Systemisches Projektmanagement: ein Instrumentarium für komplexe Veränderungs- und Entwicklungsprojekte, September 2001

Nr. 44 Enkel, E./Gibbert M./Makarevitch, A./Vassiliadis, St. – Vol. 1: Innovation/Knowledge Creation, Customer Integration and Entering New Ventures (Editors: Back, A. and von Krogh, G.), July 2002

Nr. 45 Enkel, E./Gibbert M./Makarevitch, A./Vassiliadis, St. – Vol. 2: Boundaries of the Firm: Barriers within the company and at the integration of mergers and acquisitions (Edi-tors: Back, A. and von Krogh, G.), July 2002

Nr. 46 Makarevitch, A./Enkel, E. – Vol. 3: New Ventures – important concepts and theories (Editors: Back, A. and von Krogh, G.), July 2002

28

Nr. 47 Grzegorz, G./Rumyantseva, M./Enkel, E. – Vol. 4: Customer Integration - Establish a constant bilateral knowledge flow (Editors: Back, A. and von Krogh, G.), July 2002

Nr. 48 Rumyantseva, M./Grzegorz, G./Enkel, E. – Volume 5: Knowledge Integration after Mergers & Acquisitions (Editors: Back, A. and von Krogh, G.), July 2002

Nr. 49 Rüegg-Stürm, J. – Kulturwandel in komplexen Organisationen, März 2003

Nr. 50 Schwaninger, M./Hamann, Thomas K.: Theory-Building with System Dynamics - Principles and

Practices, May 2005 Nr. 51 Schwaninger M./Körner M. - Integratives Management von Organisations- und Veränderungs-

projekten, Juni 2005 Nr. 52 Schwaninger M. - System Dynamics and the Evolution of the Systems Movement - A Historical

Perspective, June 2005

Nr. 53 Schmidt, S.L.: Comparative Strategy Process Research: A Methodological Approach, July 2005

29

Die folgenden Arbeitspapiere entstanden im Rahmen des Projektes KnowledgeSource in Zusammenarbeit von Wissenschafterinnen und Wissenschaftern des IWI-HSG - Institut for Information Management - und des IfB -

Institute of Management an der HSG.

Sie können solange Vorrat unter Tel. 0041 (0)71 224 2542, Fax 0041 (0)71224 2716 zum Preis von CHF 30.-- bezogen werden. Adresse: KnowledgeSource, IWI-HSG, Müller-Friedberg-Str. 8, CH-9000 St. Gallen

Seufert A.; Back, A.; von Krogh, G.: Towards a Reference Model for Knowledge Networking Bericht BE HSG / IWI3 Nr. 5, Version 1.0 vom 16.12.1999

Raimann, J.; Köhne, M.; Seufert A.; Back, A.; von Krogh, G.: Knowledge Networks: a Tools Perspective Bericht BE HSG / IWI3 Nr. 6, Version 1.1 vom 17.03.2000

Vassiliadis, S.; Gysin, K.; Seufert A.; von Krogh, G., Back, A.: Dealing with Knowledge Assets Bericht BE HSG / IWI3 Nr. 7, Version 1.0 vom 16.12.1999

Köhne, M.; Raimann, J.; Seufert A.; von Krogh, G., Back, A.: The Influence of Human Networks and Human Value Systems on Knowledge Sharing/Transfer Projects Bericht BE HSG / IWI3 Nr. 8, Version 1.0 vom 16.12.1999

Seufert A.; Back, A.; von Krogh, G.: A Vision for Knowledge Networking Bericht BE HSG / IWI3 Nr. 10, Version 1.0 vom 16.12.1999

Vassiliadis, S.; Wicki, Y.; Seufert A.; von Krogh, G., Back, A.: Knowledge Networks: Linking Knowl-edge Management to Business Strategy Bericht BE HSG / IWI3 Nr. 11, Version 1.0 vom 16.12.1999

Vassiliadis, S.; Köhne, M.; Seufert A.; von Krogh, G., Back, A.: Strategic deployment of networks for Knowledge Management: When to choose the network option Bericht BE HSG / IWI3 Nr. 13, Version 1.0 vom 17.03.2000

Raimann, J.; Enkel, E.; Seufert A.; Back, A.; von Krogh, G.: Supporting Business Processes through Knowledge Management – A Technology-based Analysis Bericht BE HSG / IWI3 Nr. 14, Version 1.0 vom 17.03.2000

Vassiliadis, S.; Seufert A.; von Krogh, G., Back, A.: Competing with Intellectual Capital:Theoretical Background Bericht BE HSG / IWI3 Nr. 15, Version 1.0 vom 17.03.2000

Institut für Betriebswirtschaft

Institute of Management

University of St. Gallen (HSG)

Dufourstr. 40A CH – 9000 St. Gallen

Phone 0041 (0)71 224 23 60

Fax 0041 (0)71 224 23 55

For download see: http://www.ifb.unisg.ch/Publikationen