Compressed Air Systems in the European Unionair.avexa.se/air/down/eu_compressed_air.pdf · case studies show that savings in the range from 5 to 50 % are possible. A large technical

Peter RadgenEdgar Blaustein

(Eds.)

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union

Energy, Emissions,Savings Potential and Policy Actions

ISBN3-932298-16-0

Das Werk einschließlich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschützt.Jede Verwertung ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlags unzulässig.

Das gilt insbesondere für Vervielfältigungen, Übersetzungen, Mikroverfilmungenund die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen.

Copyright © 2001 LOG_X Verlag GmbH, Stuttgart.

Projektmanagement: Dr.-Ing. Peter Radgen, Fraunhofer ISIUmschlaggestaltung: Jürgen G. Rothfuß, Neckarwestheim

Druck: Rondo Druck, Ebersbach-RoßwäldenBindung: Waidner GmbH, Fellbach

Printed in Germany

Preface

According to the Kyoto Protocol from 1997, the EU has to reduce greenhousegas emissions by 8 % below their 1990 levels until the period of 2008-2012. Toachieve these reduction targets substantial efforts will be required by all sectors.Two main strategies have been identified, which allow significant emission re-ductions without harming economic growth. The first is the wider adoption ofenergy efficient technologies. Energy efficiency has been a key element in theenergy policy of the European Union since it reduces the emissions related toenergy consumption and, at the same time, saves energy costs and contributesto extending the remaining lifetime of our natural resources.

Among the cross cutting energy savings technologies, electric motor systemsare by far the most important type of electric load. They are used in all sectorsin a wide range of applications, such as fans, compressors, pumps, or convey-ors. Since electricity consumption in electric motor systems account for abut 70% of all electricity use in the industry sector and since energy costs make upmore than 70 % of the life cycle costs of a motor system, even small improve-ments in the energy efficiency of motor systems will produce large energy sav-ings across the EU.

Therefore, the EU has supported a number of studies, analysing the market forenergy efficient electric motor applications. This book summarises the findingsof the study on compressed air systems in the EU, while other studies such as astudy on the use of pumps have recently been completed and studies on fansand on air conditioning systems are in preparation.

As energy savings measures in compressed air systems are highly profitable,we hope that our propositions on how to stimulate further applications of energysavings techniques in compressed air systems will be adopted by the EuropeanCom-mission and the national Government of each Member State.

Karlsruhe, February, 5th, 2001.

Peter RadgenEdgar Blaustein

Compressed Air Systems in the European UnionEnergy, Emissions, Savings Potential and Policy ActionsFinal Report, October 2000

The project was carried out with support from the European Commission, under theSAVE Programme, project XVII/4.1031/Z/98-266.

Project Officer: Paolo Bertoldi, <[email protected]>

Study team participants

ADEME, Project co-ordinatorAgence de l'Environnement et de laMaîtrise de l'Energie27 rue Louis Vicat75015 Paris, FranceBruno Chrétien, <[email protected]>Edgar Blaustein, <[email protected]>Anne Rialhe, <[email protected]>

Fraunhofer ISIFraunhofer InstituteSystems and Innovation ResearchBreslauer Strasse 4876139 Karlsruhe, GermanyPeter Radgen, <[email protected]>Christiane Schmid, <[email protected]>

DoEDepartment of Energetics – University of L'AquilaLocalità Monteluco di Roio67040 L'Aquila, ItalyRoberto Cipollone, <[email protected]>Roberto Carapellucci, <[email protected]>

ECEECE International VOFDe Spinhoek 87772 PX Hardenberg, NetherlandsGerard Hurink, <[email protected]>

Industry representativesThe study team would like to thank Pneurop (the European association of manufacturers anddistributors of compressed air equipment) for their participation in the study. While the manymembers of the association who participated are too numerous to list, we would like to makeparticular mention of the participation of Henri Ysewijn (President of Pneurop), Guy VanDoorslaer (SG of Pneurop), Harry Craig and Desmond Wall.

Compressed Air SystemsI in the European Union

ADEME Fraunhofer ISI SAVE DoE ECE

Table of Contents

Executive Summary ......................................................................................... 1Zusammenfassung........................................................................................... 5Résumée ......................................................................................................... 11Rapporto Conclusivo ..................................................................................... 15Samenvatting.................................................................................................. 19

Introduction .................................................................................................... 25

1. Characterisation of Compressed Air Systems in the EU..................... 271.1 Data Collection Methods ........................................................... 27

1.2 Numeric Data ............................................................................ 28

1.3 Qualitative Data on CAS Decision Processes ........................... 311.3.1 CAS Users ................................................................................ 321.3.2 Compressed Air Service Providers ........................................... 33

2. Model Energy Consumption and Growth............................................... 372.1 Aim of Model Development ....................................................... 37

2.2 Description of the Model............................................................ 37

2.3 The Simplified Model, the Data Used, and the Results ............. 38

3. Technical and Economic Energy Savings Potential ............................. 433.1 Improvement of Drives .............................................................. 44

3.2 Optimal Choice of the Type of Compressor .............................. 45

3.3 Improvement of Compressor Technology ................................. 46

3.4 Use of Sophisticated Control Systems ...................................... 46

3.5 Recuperating Waste Heat ......................................................... 46

3.6 Improved Air Treatment ............................................................ 47

3.7 Overall System Design.............................................................. 47

3.8 Optimising End Use Devices..................................................... 48

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union II


3.9 Reducing Frictional Pressure Losses in Networks.....................48

3.10 Reducing Air Leaks ...................................................................49

3.11 Measuring and Tracking System Performance..........................49

3.12 Synthesis of Technical Measures ..............................................50

4. Organisational Aspects of Energy Savings ...........................................554.1 Organisational Barriers to Improving CAS Energy

Efficiency ...................................................................................55

4.2 Outsourcing of the Compressed Air Function ............................56

4.3 Analytical Accounting Methods..................................................57

5. Analysis of Impacts..................................................................................615.1 CAS Final Users ........................................................................63

5.2 Manufacturers of Compressors and CAS Equipment ................71

5.3 Electric Utilities ..........................................................................73

5.4 Engineering Consultants and Compressed Air Suppliers ..........76

5.5 Environmental Impact ................................................................77

6. Actions to Promote Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems..........816.1 Actions.......................................................................................826.1.1 Advertising Campaign................................................................826.1.2 Technology Demonstration........................................................836.1.3 Measuring Campaign.................................................................846.1.4 Contests and Awards.................................................................846.1.5 Dissemination of Information, Training, and Education .............866.1.6 Life Cycle Costing......................................................................886.1.7 Labelling and Certification .........................................................906.1.8 Voluntary Agreements ...............................................................956.1.9 Development of Guidelines for Outsourcing ..............................986.1.10 Economic and Regulatory Actions.............................................996.1.11 Other Possible Actions ............................................................102

6.2 Classification of Actions and Development of aConcerted Programme ............................................................103

6.3 Proposition to the Commission on How to Act.........................108

Compressed Air SystemsIII in the European Union


7. Evaluation of the Impact of Measures.................................................. 1137.1 The Energy Scenarios............................................................. 113

7.2 Future Energy Consumption of CAS ....................................... 114

Bibliography ................................................................................................. 119

APPENDIX 1: Market Characterisation: Qualitative Data .......................... 121

APPENDIX 2: Market Characterisation: Numeric Data .............................. 127

APPENDIX 3: ADEME Data Collection Guide for Compressed AirOutsourcing........................................................................... 131

APPENDIX 4: Data Collection Guide for Compressed Air Users.............. 145

APPENDIX 5: Qualitative Data Collection Guide for EquipmentManufacturers ....................................................................... 157

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union IV


List of Figures

Figure 1: CAS electricity consumption ..........................................................29

Figure 2: Number of air compressors by power range ..................................30

Figure 3: Number of new and upgraded CAS until 2015...............................41

Figure 4: Process chain for CAS...................................................................43

Figure 5: Major families of compressors .......................................................45

Figure 6: An example of a CA network .........................................................49

Figure 7: Major energy savings measures ....................................................53

Figure 8: Industry Electricity Factor for EU countries, US and Japanin 1996 ...........................................................................................65

Figure 9: Electricity Consumption for EU countries in 1996 ..........................66

Figure 10: LCC for two different sizes of compressors, indicating thesignificance of energy consumption...............................................89

Figure 11: LCC of a compressor with variation of electricity prices.................90

Figure 12: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (covered potentialand implementation time).............................................................107

Figure 13: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (costs and coveredpotential) ......................................................................................108

Figure 14: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (Implementationtime and costs) ............................................................................109

Figure 15: Construction of the Awareness Raising Programme (ARP).........110

Figure 16: CAS electricity consumption according to scenario .....................115

Figure 17: CAS electricity consumption by country, BAU scenario ...............116

Figure 18: CAS electricity consumption by country, ARP scenario ...............116

Figure 19: CAS electricity consumption by country, ERP scenario ...............117

Compressed Air SystemsV in the European Union


List of Tables

Table 1: Electricity consumption in compressed air systems ...................... 29

Table 2: Number of air compressors installed ............................................. 30

Table 3: Number of air compressors installed in 1999 ................................ 39

Table 4: Electricity consumption for CAS in 1999........................................ 39

Table 5: Growth rates for CAS in the EU..................................................... 40

Table 6: Compressed air system life cycle .................................................. 51

Table 7: Energy savings measures ............................................................. 52

Table 8: Types of measuring systems......................................................... 58

Table 9: Energy savings measures ............................................................. 61

Table 10: Some acronyms for energetic and economic parameters ............. 63

Table 11: Market Penetration Factor and Efficiency Gain Factor .................. 64

Table 12: Energy Savings and CAS Energy Savings Ratio for eachproposed measure ........................................................................ 67

Table 13: Energy Savings and CAS Energy Savings Ratio for theactions globally considered ........................................................... 68

Table 14: Reduction of energy costs for the actions globallyconsidered..................................................................................... 68

Table 15: Reduction of operating costs for each proposed measure ............ 70

Table 16: Increment of Investment costs for each proposed measure.......... 70

Table 17: Payback Time, full realisation of techno-economic potential ......... 71

Table 18: Payback Time, moderate ARP scenario........................................ 71

Table 19: Number of company-level measures for each proposedenergy savings measure ............................................................... 72

Table 20: Estimated annual sales of new / upgraded components ............... 73

Table 21: Reduction of energy sales for electric utilities due to each ofthe proposed actions (medium price scenario).............................. 74

Table 22: Reduction of energy sales for electric utilities due to theactions globally considered (medium price scenario) .................... 74

Table 23: Fuel savings .................................................................................. 74

Table 24: Global Energy Savings Ratio for each proposed measure............ 75

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union VI


Table 25: Global Energy Savings Ratio for the action globallyconsidered .....................................................................................75

Table 26: Energy and Fuel Savings for the moderate scenario .....................76

Table 27: Electricity production in 1997 for various countries........................78

Table 28: Specific CO2 emissions..................................................................79

Table 29: Energy savings and CO2 emission reduction for each of theproposed actions ...........................................................................80

Table 30: Energy savings and CO2 emission reduction in themoderate scenario .........................................................................80

Table 31: Target groups of proposed actions ..............................................104

Table 32: Affected components of proposed actions ...................................104

Table 33: Estimate of gained energy savings by the two programmes........106

Table 34: Actions and action levels .............................................................111

Table 35: Total CAS electricity consumption in TWh, per country ...............114

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union 1 Executive Summary


Executive Summary

Introduction

Using compressed air in the industrial and service sectors is a common prac-tice, since production, handling and use are safe and easy. Compressed airaccounts for as much as 10 % of industrial consumption of electricity, or over 80TWh per year in the European Union.

Nonetheless, the energy efficiency of many compressed air systems is low:case studies show that savings in the range from 5 to 50 % are possible. Alarge technical and economic potential for energy savings is not being realisedunder current market and decision mechanisms. The study "Compressed AirSystems in the European Union" has developed recommendations for actionsthat could bring about market transformation, in order to realise this potential forenergy and cost savings.

Market characterisation, technical energy savings measures

Compressors are relatively long lived capital goods, with an average lifetime of13 years for compressors between 10 and 90 kW, and 16 years between 90and 300 kW. They operate on the average 3500 hours per year. The currentstock of compressors is as follows.

Country Total 10-110 kW 110-300 kWFrance 43 765 28 885 14 880Germany 62 000 43 400 18 600Greece + Spain + Portugal 35 660 25 685 9 976Italy 43 800 30 660 13 140United Kingdom 55 000 46 750 8 250Rest of the EU 81 040 56 015 25 024Total 321 265 231 395 89 870

The market for compressed air systems (CAS) is stable in Europe, with 1 % to2 % growth in Italy, Greece and Spain, and 0 % growth in the other Europeancountries.

Performance of CAS depends on the performance of each element, but evenmore on overall system design and operation. The economically and technicallyfeasible energy savings amount to 32.9 %, achievable over a 15 year pe-riod. All the technical measures examined are cost effective (payback time ofless than 36 months) in some applications. The most important energy savingsmeasures are:• reducing air leaks• better system design

Compressed Air SystemsExecutive Summary 2 in the European Union


• use of adjustable speed drives (ASD)• recovery of waste heat. The following table resumes the potential contribution to energy savings of thetechnical measures examined.

Energy savings measure % applicability (1) % gains (2) potentialcontribution (3)

System installation or renewalImprovement of drives (high efficiencymotors, HEM) 25 % 2 % 0.5 %

Improvement of drives: (Adjustable speeddrives, ASD) 25 % 15 % 3.8 %

Upgrading of compressor 30 % 7 % 2.1 %Use of sophisticated control systems 20 % 12 % 2.4 %Recovering waste heat for use in otherfunctions 20 % 20 % 4.0 %

Improved cooling, drying and filtering 10 % 5 % 0.5 %Overall system design, including multi-pressure systems 50 % 9 % 4.5 %

Reducing frictional pressure losses 50 % 3 % 1.5 %Optimising certain end use devices 5 % 40 % 2.0 %System operation and maintenanceReducing air leaks 80 % 20 % 16.0 %More frequent filter replacement 40 % 2 % 0.8 %

TOTAL 32.9 %Table legend: (1) % of CAS where this measure is applicable and cost effective

(2) % reduction in annual energy consumption(3) Potential contribution = Applicability * Reduction

Energy savings can best be achieved at the time when a new system is builtfrom scratch. Nevertheless, much can be done at the time of replacement ofmajor components of an existing system. Furthermore, actions which are re-lated to maintenance and operations, in particular regular filter maintenance andair leak detection, can be introduced at any moment in the life cycle of a CAS.

Market transformation for greater energy efficiency would impact different ac-tors:• users of CAS would have to increase capital investments and maintenance

costs, in order to benefit from reduced energy costs;• manufacturers of CAS equipment could benefit from expansion of the mar-

ket for higher quality, better performing equipment, and would have to adjusttheir product line accordingly;

• electric utilities would have slightly decreased sales;• engineering consultants and compressed air suppliers could benefit from

expanded opportunities to counsel users on energy efficiency.

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union 3 Executive Summary


While the technical measures needed for increased energy efficiency are con-sidered to be more profitable than many other industrial investments, thesemeasures are not carried out by private enterprises, for reasons which are es-sentially organisational:• No compressed air cost accounting. CAS electricity consumption is "in-

visible" to top management, since it is most often a relatively small cost itemfor any company. Electricity consumption in general is usually treated as ageneral overhead item in company analytical accounting schemes: reducingthis cost item is often not the responsibility of any particular manager.

• Lack of awareness of possible savings. Top management, responsible forpurchasing policy and investment decisions, is not aware of possible energysavings. Measures to optimise the cost of equipment purchases, such ascompetitive bidding procedures, rarely take into account electricity consump-tion.

• Complex management structure. Responsibility for potential optimisationmeasures is largely diffused among several management functions: Produc-tion, Maintenance, Purchasing, Finance. It is difficult to get high level man-agement agreement, cutting across departmental responsibilities, on a lowpriority item such as electricity consumption.

Actions to promote energy efficient compressed air systems

Since the barriers to the implementation of energy efficiency measures stemessentially from organisational factors in CAS user companies, the solutionsmust be user oriented, and aimed at organisational change. The objective mustbe to convince high level management to make the decisions necessary tocarry out energy efficiency programmes. The study evaluates the following ac-tions.• Advertising campaign, to raise awareness of CAS energy consumption;• Technology Demonstration, for innovative concepts such as gas turbine

driven compressors, new tube connections for reducing losses, new con-cepts for air drying, gas expansion driven compressors, or automatic leakdetection systems;

• Measuring campaign to give CAS users an idea of their savings potential;• Contests and awards for superior system design;• Dissemination of information, training and education on CAS energy sav-

ings• Life Cycle Costing, which can demonstrate that environmentally optimal

decisions are also economically optimal;• Labelling and Certification of both system components and entire systems;• Voluntary Agreements with manufacturers and with users;• Development of guidelines to improve contracts for outsourcing CAS

services;

Compressed Air SystemsExecutive Summary 4 in the European Union


• Taxes on energy or on carbon emissions;• Subsidies, particularly for upstream aid in decision making and for audits;• Regulations to impose standards for system design and operation.

Recommended actions have been grouped into 2 programmes.• The Awareness Raising Programme (ARP), (similar to the existing EU

GreenLights programme) includes the information and decision aid meas-ures, and could stimulate the saving of 16.5 % of current CAS electricity con-sumption.

• The Economic and Regulatory Programme (ERP) (including subsidies,taxes, and regulatory measures), could, in combination with the ARP, stimu-late savings of 24.7 %. (Note that the study team believes that the ERPwould be ineffective without the ARP.)

In the view of the study team, these levels of savings constitute very ambitioustargets, which nevertheless could be achieved over a 15 year period. To besuccessful, the programmes would have to meet the following conditions:• optimal co-ordination between EU and member state action;• sufficient financial resources;• sufficient human resources;• high level political support, in order to favour participation of the private

sector;• strong commitment from business leaders and organisations.

Proposition to the Commission on how to act

The study proposes that the Commission implement all or part of the "Aware-ness Raising Programme", including in particular the three key actions: adver-tising campaign; information and training; measuring campaign. It is esti-mated that such a programme could incite the saving of 11 TWh/year by 2015,equivalent to over 5 million tons of CO2.

This programme would work best in the context of co-ordinated efforts betweennational and European actions, integrated into a "Motor Driven Systems Chal-lenge" programme.

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union 5 Zusammenfassung


Zusammenfassung

Einleitung

Der Einsatz von Druckluft in den Industrie- und Dienstleistungsbranchen ist ver-breitet, da Erzeugung, Umgang und Nutzung sicher und einfach sind. Auf dieDrucklufterzeugung entfallen in der Europäischen Union ca. 10 % des indus-triellen Stromverbrauchs oder über 80 TWh pro Jahr.

Trotz dieses hohen Energieverbrauchs ist die Energieeffizienz vieler Druckluft-anlagen (DLA) niedrig: Fallstudien zeigen, dass Einsparungen im Bereich zwi-schen 5 und 50 % möglich sind. Ein großes technisches und wirtschaftlichesEnergieeinsparpotenzial wird unter aktuellen Markt- und Entscheidungsmecha-nismen nicht realisiert. Im Rahmen der vorgelegten Studie wurden Handlungs-empfehlungen erarbeitet, bei deren Umsetzung die bestehenden Hemmnisseabgebaut und überwunden werden können, damit dieses Potenzial für Energie-und Kosteneinsparungen in Druckluftanlagen realisiert werden kann.

Marktanalyse und technische Energieeinsparmaßnahmen

Kompressoren sind relativ langlebige Investitionsgüter mit einer durchschnittli-chen Lebensdauer von ca. 13 Jahren für Kompressoren zwischen 10 und90 kW bzw. 16 Jahren für Kompressoren zwischen 90 und 300 kW. Sie sind imDurchschnitt 3 500 Stunden pro Jahr in Betrieb. Nach den Auswertungen derArbeitsgruppe sind derzeit in der Europäischen Union ca. 321 265 Kompresso-ren im Einsatz. In der folgenden Tabelle ist die Gesamtzahl der Kompressorennach Ländern und Größenklassen zusammengefasst:

Land Summe 10-110 kW 110-300 kWFrankreich 43 765 28 885 14 880Deutschland 62 000 43 400 18 600Griechenland + Spanien + Portugal 35 660 25 685 9 976Italien 43 800 30 660 13 140Großbritannien 55 000 46 750 8 250Übrige Länder der EU 81 040 56 015 25 024Summe 321 265 231 395 89 870

Der Markt für Druckluftanlagen ist europaweit stabil, mit 1 bis 2 % Wachstum inItalien, Griechenland und Spanien und einer Stagnation der Bestandszahlen(0 % Wachstum) in den übrigen EU-Ländern.

Die Gesamteffizienz einer Druckluftanlage hängt sowohl von der Effizienz dereinzelnen Komponenten der Anlage aber auch von der Auslegung des Ge-samtanlage und dessen Betrieb ab. Die wirtschaftlich und technisch umsetzba-ren Energieeinsparungen belaufen sich auf mehr als 30 %, die im Laufe ei-

Compressed Air SystemsZusammenfassung 6 in the European Union


ner Zeitspanne von 15 Jahren erzielbar sind. Alle untersuchten technischenMaßnahmen sind in vielen Anwendungsfällen rentabel (Amortisationszeit vonunter 3 Jahren). Die wichtigsten Energieeinsparmaßnahmen sind:• Verminderung von Leckageverlusten• verbesserte Anlagenauslegung• Einsatz von drehzahlvariablen Antrieben• Wärmerückgewinnung.

Die nachfolgende Tabelle fasst das Energieeinsparpotenzial der untersuchtentechnischen Maßnahmen zusammen.

Energieeinsparmaßnahme%

Anwendbarkeit(1)

%Effizienz-gewinn (2)

Gesamt-potenzial (3)

Neuanlagen oder ErsatzinvestitionenVerbesserte Antriebe (hocheffiziente Moto-ren, HEM) 25 % 2 % 0,5 %

Verbesserte Antriebe (drehzahlvariableAntriebe, ASD) 25 % 15 % 3,8 %

Technische Optimierung des Kompressors 30 % 7 % 2,1 %Einsatz effizienter und übergeordneterSteuerungen 20 % 12 % 2,4 %

Wärmerückgewinnung für Nutzung in an-deren Anwendungen 20 % 20 % 4,0 %

Verbesserte Druckluftaufbereitung (Küh-lung, Trocknung und Filterung) 10 % 5 % 0,5 %

Gesamtanlagenauslegung inkl. Mehr-druckanlagen 50 % 9 % 4,5 %

Verminderung der Druckverluste im Ver-teilsystem 50 % 3 % 1,5 %

Optimierung von Druckluftgeräten 5 % 40 % 2,0 %Anlagenbetrieb und InstandhaltungVerminderung der Leckageverluste 80 % 20 % 16,0 %Häufigerer Filterwechsel 40 % 2 % 0,8 %

SUMME 32,9 %Legende: (1) % DLA, in denen diese Maßnahme anwendbar und rentabel ist

(2) % Energieeinsparung des jährlichen Energieverbrauchs(3) Einsparpotenzial = Anwendbarkeit * Effizienzgewinn

Energieeinsparungen lassen sich am effizientesten und kostengünstigsten beider Installation einer neuen Druckluftanlage realisieren. Große Energieeinspa-rungen lassen sich jedoch auch realisieren, wenn Hauptkomponenten einer be-stehenden Anlage ersetzt werden. Darüber hinaus können Maßnahmen, die mitder Instandhaltung und dem Betrieb der Druckluftanlage in Verbindung stehen,insbesondere die regelmäßige Filterwartung und das Aufspüren und Beseitigenvon Leckageverlusten, zu jedem Zeitpunkt während der Lebensdauer einerDruckluftanlage durchgeführt werden.



Eine verstärkte Umsetzung von Maßnahmen zur Steigerung der Energieeffi-zienz auf Grund der Marktbeeinflussung durch politische Maßnahmen hätteAuswirkungen auf verschiedene Akteure:• Druckluftanwender müssten gestiegene Kapitalinvestitionen und Wartungs-

kosten in Kauf nehmen, um von reduzierten Energiekosten zu profitieren;• Hersteller von Druckluftanlagen könnten aus einer Ausweitung des Markts

für hochwertige, leistungsfähige Geräte Nutzen ziehen und müssten ihr Pro-duktangebot entsprechend modifizieren und optimieren;

• der Stromabsatz der Energieversorger würde leicht sinken;• Ingenieurbüros, Berater und Contractoren im Bereich Druckluft könnten

von den erweiterten Möglichkeiten profitieren, Anwender über Energieeffi-zienzaspekte zu beraten.

Obwohl die zur Steigerung der Energieeffizienz in Druckluftanlagen notwendi-gen technischen Maßnahmen profitabler als viele andere Investitionen in derIndustrie sind, werden diese aus organisatorischen Gründen häufig nicht vonUnternehmen umgesetzt. Diese lassen sich im Wesentlichen in drei Problem-gruppen zusammenfassen:• Es gibt keine Kostenstelle für die Drucklufterzeugung und -nutzung. Der

Stromverbrauch zur Drucklufterzeugung bleibt der Geschäftsführung "un-sichtbar", da es sich in vielen Fällen um relativ kleine Beträge handelt. DerStromverbrauch zur Drucklufterzeugung wird in der Regel als Bestandteil derGemeinkosten verbucht. Die Verantwortung für die Senkung dieser Kostengehört meistens nicht zu dem Verantwortungsbereich eines einzelnen Mana-gers.

• Mangelndes Bewusstsein möglicher Einsparungen. Der obersten Ge-schäftsleitung, die für die Beschaffungspolitik und Investitionsentscheidungenverantwortlich ist, fehlt das Bewusstsein für mögliche Energieeinsparungen.Maßnahmen, mit denen die Kosten von Gerätebeschaffungen optimiert wer-den sollen, z. B. Ausschreibungen, berücksichtigen den Stromverbrauch nurselten.

• Komplexe Managementstruktur. Die Verantwortlichkeit für mögliche Opti-mierungsmaßnahmen ist meistens auf mehrere Managementfunktionen ver-teilt: Herstellung, Wartung, Beschaffung, Finanzierung. Es ist schwierig, aufdieser Managementebene über Posten mit niedriger Priorität wie den Strom-verbrauch einen Konsens zu erreichen, der quer über Abteilungskompeten-zen reicht.

Maßnahmen zur Förderung energieeffizienter Druckluftanlagen

Da die Hemmnisse zur Umsetzung energieeffizienter Maßnahmen im Grundeauf organisatorische Faktoren bei den Druckluftanwendern zurückgehen, müs-sen sich die möglichen Maßnahmen an Anwendern orientieren und auf Organi-sationsveränderungen abzielen. Das Ziel ist es, das Management (Geschäftfüh-rer, Technische Leiter) zu überzeugen, die notwendigen Entscheidungen für dieDurchführung von Energieeffizienzprogrammen zu treffen. Im Rahmen der vor-

Compressed Air SystemsZusammenfassung 8 in the European Union


liegenden Studie wurden die folgenden möglichen Maßnahmenvorschläge er-arbeitet und bewertet.• Werbekampagne zur Steigerung des Bewusstseins für den Stromverbrauch

in Druckluftanlagen;• Demonstrations- und Pilotvorhaben mit innovativen Konzepten, wie z. B.

durch Gasturbinen angetriebene Kompressoren, neue Rohrverbindungstech-niken, um Leckageverluste zu reduzieren, neue Konzepte der Druckluftauf-bereitung, durch Erdgasexpansionsanlagen angetriebene Kompressorenoder eine automatisierte Leckageerkennung;

• Messkampagne, um Nutzern von Druckluftanlagen ein besseres Verständ-nis des qualitativen und quantitativen Einsparpotenzials ihrer Druckluftanla-gen zu vermitteln;

• Wettbewerbe und Preise; Motivation zu einer optimierten Anlagenausle-gung;

• Informationskampagnen, Aus-, Fort- und Weiterbildung im Hinblick aufEnergieeinsparungen bei Druckluftanlagen;

• Lebenszykluskosten, die aufzeigen, dass optimierte umweltgerechte Ent-scheidungen auch wirtschaftlich optimal sind;

• Kennzeichnung und Zertifizierung sowohl von Anlagenkomponenten alsauch von Gesamtanlagen;

• freiwillige Selbstverpflichtungen zwischen Herstellern und Anwendern;• Erstellung von Leitfäden, um Outsourcingverträge für Druckluftdienstleis-

tungen zu verbessern;• Steuern auf Energie oder CO2;• Subventionen, besonders zur Unterstützung bei der Auswahl und Konzepti-

on von Anlagen und für Audits;• Vorschriften und Normung für Systemauslegung und -betrieb.

Die einzelnen Maßnahmen wurden als Handlungsempfehlung in zwei sich er-gänzende Programme zusammengefasst.• Das "Awareness Raising Programme (ARP)" (Aufmerksamkeits-Pro-

gramm; in Anlehnung an das bestehenden EU-GreenLights-Programm) um-fasst die Maßnahmen im Bereich Information und Entscheidungsunterstüt-zung und könnte Einsparungen bis zu 16,5 % des derzeitigen Stromver-brauchs in Druckluftanlagen aktivieren.

• Das "Economic and Regulatory Programme (ERP)" (Maßnahmen-Pro-gramm für Wirtschaftlichkeit, Vorschriften, Subventionen und Steuern) könntezusammen mit dem ARP Einsparungen bis zu 24,7 % initiieren. (Dabei ist zubeachten, dass das Projektteam das ERP ohne die gleichzeitige Umsetzungdes ARP für unwirksam hält.)

Nach Auffassung der Projektbearbeiter, stellt die Umsetzung dieser Einsparpo-tenziale ein sehr ehrgeiziges Ziel dar, das jedoch ohne weiteres über einen



Zeitraum von 15 Jahren erreicht werden kann. Für einen Erfolg der zu ergrei-fenden Maßnahmen ist dabei sicherzustellen, das die Programme den folgen-den Rahmenbedingungen gerecht werden:• optimale Abstimmung zwischen der EU und den Maßnahmen einzelner Mit-

gliedsstaaten;• ausreichende und langfristige Finanzierung;• ausreichendes Personal;• hochrangige politische Unterstützung und Förderung, um eine breite Akzep-

tanz in der Öffentlichkeit zu erzielen;• großes Engagement von Wirtschaftsunternehmen und Fachorganisationen.

Handlungsvorschlag für die Europäische Kommission

Die Studie schlägt vor, dass die Kommission das vollständige "Awareness Rai-sing Programme" oder Teile davon durchführt. Dabei sollten mindestens diedrei Hauptaktionen Werbekampagne, Information und Ausbildung sowie dieMesskampagne umgesetzt werden. Eine überschlägige Ermittlung ergab, dassein solches Programm Einsparungen von 11 TWh/Jahr (oder mehr als 5 Millio-nen Tonnen CO2) bis 2015 initiieren könnte.

Dieses Programm würde am sinnvollsten im Zusammenspiel von aufeinanderabgestimmten Maßnahmen auf nationaler und europäischer Ebene funktionie-ren, z. B. integriert in ein Programm zur Verbesserung der Energieeffizienz beiEinsatz und Anwendung von Elektromotoren (Motor Challenge Programme).

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union 11 Résumée


Résumée

Introduction

L’utilisation de l’air comprimé dans l’industrie et le tertiaire est courant, sa pro-duction et son usage étant faciles et sans danger. L’air comprimé représente10 % de la consommation d’électricité de l’industrie, soit plus de 80 TWh pourl’Union Européenne.

Mais le rendement énergétique de nombreux systèmes à air comprimé est fai-ble : les études de cas mettent en évidence des économies d’énergie possiblesde 5 à 50 %. Les conditions actuelles du marché et des mécanismes de déci-sion ne permettent pas la mise en œuvre de cet important potentield’économies d’énergie. L’étude "Transformation du marché des systèmes à aircomprimé" propose des actions pour transformer le marché et réaliser le poten-tiel d’économies d’énergie (et de dépenses) identifié.

Caractérisation du marché, mesures techniques d’économie d’énergie

Les compresseurs ont des durées de vie relativement longues, en moyenne 13ans pour les compresseurs de puissance comprise entre 10 et 90 kW, 16 anspour les compresseurs de puissance de 90 à 300 kW. Ils sont utilisés enmoyenne 3500 heures par an. Le parc installé par pays est indiqué ci-dessous.

Pays Total 10-110 kW 110-300 kWFrance 43 765 28 885 14 880Allemagne 62 000 43 400 18 600Grèce + Espagne + Portugal 35 660 25 685 9 976Italie 43 800 30 660 13 140Grande-Bretagne 55 000 46 750 8 250Autres pays de l’Union européenne 81 040 56 015 25 024Total 321 265 231 395 89 870

Le marché pour les systèmes à air comprimé (SAC) est stable en Europe, avecune croissance de 1 à 2 % en Italie, Grèce et Espagne, une croissance nulledans les autres pays européens.

La performance d’un système dépend de chaque élément, mais plus particuliè-rement de sa conception générale et de son mode d’exploitation. Le potentield’économies d’énergie, économiquement et techniquement intéressant, estestimé à 32.9 %, réalisable en 15 ans. Toutes les mesures techniques exami-nées sont rentables économiquement (temps de retour de moins de 36 mois),au moins pour certaines applications. Les mesures les plus importantes sont :• La réduction des fuites• Une meilleure conception du système

Compressed Air SystemsRésumée 12 in the European Union


• L’utilisation de moteurs à vitesse adaptable• La récupération de chaleur. Le tableau suivant résume la contribution potentielle aux économies d’énergiedes mesures techniques analysées.

Mesures d’économie d’énergie % application (1) % gains (2) contributionpotentielle (3)

Installation ou remise à neuf du systèmeAmélioration des moteurs (moteurs à hautrendement) 25 % 2 % 0.5 %

Amélioration des moteurs (moteurs à vi-tesse variable) 25 % 15 % 3.8 %

Amélioration du compresseur 30 % 7 % 2.1 %Utilisation de systèmes de contrôle précis 20 % 12 % 2.4 %Récupération de la chaleur pour d’autresusages 20 % 20 % 4.0 %

Amélioration du système de refroidisse-ment, séchage et filtrage 10 % 5 % 0.5 %

Conception générale, systèmes multi-pression 50 % 9 % 4.5 %

Réduction des pertes de pression par fric-tion 50 % 3 % 1.5 %

Optimisation des appareils consommantl'air comprimé 5 % 40 % 2.0 %

Exploitation et maintenanceRéduction des fuites d’air 80 % 20 % 16.0 %Remplacement plus fréquent des filtres 40 % 2 % 0.8 %

TOTAL 32.9 %Légende: (1) % des systèmes où la mesure est applicable et rentable

(2) % réduction de la consommation d’énergie annuelle(3) Contribution potentielle = Application * Réduction

Les économies d’énergie sont mises en œuvre plus aisément lors del’installation du système, mais aussi lors du remplacement des principaux com-posants d’un système existant. De plus, les mesures relatives à la maintenanceet à l’utilisation, en particulier la maintenance régulière des filtres et la détectiondes fuites, peuvent être introduites n’importe quand dans la vie du système à aircomprimé.

Les mécanismes de transformation du marché pour une meilleure efficacitéénergétique nécessitent l’implication de différents acteurs :• Les utilisateurs des systèmes à air comprimé devront augmenter leur in-

vestissement (capital et maintenance), pour limiter les dépenses dues àl’énergie;

• Les constructeurs pourront bénéficier d’une ouverture du marché pour deséquipements plus performants, de meilleure qualité, ils devront ajuster leurligne de production selon la demande;

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union 13 Résumée


• Les compagnies électriques auront une légère baisse des ventes;• Les bureaux d’ingénierie et les fournisseurs d’air comprimé pourront

bénéficier d’opportunité pour conseiller les utilisateurs sur l’efficacité énergé-tique.

Bien que les mesures techniques pour améliorer l’efficacité énergétique soientplus rentables que beaucoup d’autres investissements industriels, ces mesuresne sont pas mises en œuvre par les entreprises privées, pour des questionsessentiellement d’organisation :• L’absence de comptage du coût de l’air comprimé. La consommation

d’électricité des compresseurs est "invisible" pour la direction, son coût étantle plus souvent relativement bas. La consommation d’électricité est le plussouvent incluse dans les frais généraux : réduire ce coût n’est du ressortprécis d’aucun responsable.

• Le manque d’information sur les économies possibles. La direction, res-ponsable des politiques d’achat et des décisions d’investissement, n’est pasau courant des possibilités d’économie d’énergie. Les mesures pour optimi-ser le coût des achats d’équipements prennent rarement en compte laconsommation électrique.

• La complexité des structures de gestion. La responsabilité des prises dedécision est répartie entre plusieurs gestionnaires : production, maintenance,achat, comptabilité. Il est difficile d’obtenir l’accord de la direction, transver-sale sur plusieurs services, pour une question aussi peu prioritaire que laconsommation électrique.

Actions pour diffuser des systèmes à air comprimé performants

Les obstacles à la mise en œuvre de mesures d’économie d’énergie étant es-sentiellement dus à des facteurs organisationnels, à l’intérieur des entreprisesutilisatrices d’air comprimé, les solutions doivent toucher ces entreprises et lesamener à modifier leur organisation. L’objectif est de convaincre la direction demettre en œuvre les programmes nécessaires pour économiser l’énergie. Notreétude a évalué les actions suivantes.• Campagnes d’information, pour sensibiliser aux consommations d’énergie

de l’air comprimé;• Démonstration technologique, pour des concepts innovants tels que de

nouvelles connections des tubes pour réduire les pertes, pour le séchage del’air ou la détection automatique des pertes;

• Compagnes de mesures pour que les utilisateurs d’air comprimé aient uneidée de leurs potentiels d’économie;

• Concours et primes pour la conception des systèmes;• Diffusion de l’information, formation, sur les économies possibles des

systèmes à air comprimé;• Analyse en coût global, qui peut montrer l’intérêt économique d’une solu-

tion intéressante environnementalement;• Etiquetage et certification à la fois des composants et du système lui-

même;

Compressed Air SystemsRésumée 14 in the European Union


• Accords volontaires entre les constructeurs et les utilisateurs;• Développement de contracts-types pour l’externalisation de la fourniture

d’air comprimé;• Taxes sur l’énergie consommée ou les émissions de carbone;• Subventions, particulièrement pour les prises de décisions amont et les au-

dits;• Réglementations pour la conception et l’utilisation des systèmes.

Les actions recommandées sont regroupées dans deux programmes.• Un programme d’information (Awareness Raising Programme (ARP)),

(similaire au programme européen GreenLights) qui comprend les mesuresd’information et d’aides à la décision, et peut permettre une économie de16.5 % de la consommation actuelle d’électricité des systèmes à air compri-mé.

• Un programme économique et réglementaire (Economic and RegulatoryProgramme (ERP)) (incluant subventions, taxes et mesures réglementaires),qui en combinaison avec le programme d’information permettrait 24.7 %d’économie. (Il faut noter que les réalisateurs du projet ne croit pas àl’efficacité du deuxième programme mis en œuvre sans le premier.)

Selon le point de vue de l’équipe ayant réalisé le projet, ces niveauxd’économie d’énergie constituent des objectifs très ambitieux, mais qui peuventêtre atteints sur une période de 15 ans. Pour ce faire, les conditions suivantesdevraient être respectées :• coordination des actions entre l’Union européenne et les états membres;• allocation de ressources financières suffisantes;• allocation de ressources humaines suffisantes;• support politique appuyé, pour favoriser la participation du secteur privé;• engagement financier réel des chefs d’entreprises et des organisations pro-

fessionnelles.

Proposition pour la Commission

L’étude propose que la Commission mette en œuvre tout ou partie du pro-gramme d’information, avec en particulier trois actions clés : la campagned’information, la formation, les campagnes de mesures. Les économiessuscitées par un tel programme sont estimées à 11 TWh/an en 2015, équiva-lentes à plus de 5 millions de tonnes de CO2.

Ce programme se développerait plus favorablement dans le cadre d’une coor-dination des efforts entre les actions nationales et européennes, intégrées ausein d’un programme plus général (le "Motor Driven Systems Challenge" pro-gramme).

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union 15 Rapporto Conclusivo


Rapporto Conclusivo

Introduzione

L’uso dell’aria compressa nel settore industriale e dei servizi è pratica comune,data la semplicità e la sicurezza della sua produzione, gestione ed utilizzo.L’aria compressa costituisce sino al 10 % del consumo industriale di elettricità,pari a oltre 80 TWh annui nella Unione Europea.

Ciononostante, l’efficienza energetica della maggior parte degli impianti di ariacompressa è piuttosto bassa: l’analisi di casi reali mostra che sono possibilirisparmi di entità che può variare fra il 5 e il 50 %. Esiste un significativopotenziale tecnico ed economico di risparmio energetico che normalmentesfugge alla percezione nell’ambito dei correnti processi decisionali e di mercato.Lo "Studio sulla trasformazione del mercato dei Sistemi di Aria Compressa"sviluppa alcune raccomandazioni su possibili interventi che potrebbero darluogo a reali modificazioni del mercato, così da concretizzare il suddettopotenziale di risparmio energetico ed economico.

Caratterizzazione del Mercato e interventi tecnici di risparmio energetico

I compressori d’aria sono beni d’investimento con durate relativamente lunghe,in media 13 anni per compressori fra 10 e 90 kW, e 16 anni fra 90 e 300 kW. Uncompressore opera in media 3500 ore annue. L’attuale parco dei compressori èripartito come segue.

Paese Totale 10-110 kW 110-300 kWFrancia 43 765 28 885 14 880Germania 62 000 43 400 18 600Grecia + Spagna + Portogallo 35 660 25 685 9 976Italia 43 800 30 660 13 140Regno Unito 55 000 46 750 8 250Resto dell’UE 81 040 56 015 25 024Totale 321 265 231 395 89 870

Il mercato degli impianti di aria compressa (CAS) è stabile in Europa, concrescite dall’1 al 2 % in Italia, Grecia e Spagna, e crescite nulle negli altri paesi.

Le prestazioni di un impianto di aria compressa dipendono da quelle dei suoisingoli elementi, ma ancor più dipendono dal progetto e dall’eserciziodell’impianto nel suo complesso. Gli interventi di risparmio energetico ritenutifattibili dal punto di vista tecnico ed economico ammontano al 32.9 %, ottenibilesu uno scenario temporale di 15 anni. Tutti i provvedimenti tecnici esaminatisono economicamente convenienti (tempi di ritorno inferiori a 36 mesi) in

Compressed Air SystemsRapporto Conclusivo 16 in the European Union


misura maggiore o minore a seconda delle applicazioni. Gli interventi piùimportanti sono:• riduzione delle perdite di aria compressa• miglioramento del progetto dell’impianto• uso di azionamenti a velocità variabile (ASD)• recupero del calore di scarto.

La tabella seguente riassume il contributo potenziale di ciascun provvedimentoal risparmio energetico globale. I risparmi energetici possono essere ottenuti almeglio in sede di nuova costruzione dell’impianto. Nondimeno, molto ancora sipuò fare in sede di rinnovo dei componenti più importanti su impianti esistenti.Inoltre, interventi relativi alla manutenzione e alla gestione (in particolare lamanutenzione sistematica dei filtri e la verifica delle perdite di aria) possonoessere introdotti in qualsiasi momento della vita utile di un impianto di ariacompressa.

Intervento di risparmio energetico % diapplicabilità (1)

% dirisparmio

(2)

contributopotenziale (3)

Istallazione o rinnovo dell’impiantoMiglioramento dei motori (motori a altaefficienza, HEM) 25 % 2 % 0.5 %

Miglioramento degli azionamenti:(variaz. di velocità, ASD) 25 % 15 % 3.8 %

Aggiornamento dei compressori 30 % 7 % 2.1 %Uso di sistemi di controllo sofisticati 20 % 12 % 2.4 %Recupero del calore di scarto per altri scopi 20 % 20 % 4.0 %Miglioramento del raffreddamento,essiccazione e filtraggio 10 % 5 % 0.5 %

Progetto complessivo dell’impianto (multilivello di pressione) 50 % 9 % 4.5 %

Riduzione perdite per attrito 50 % 3 % 1.5 %Ottimizzazione di alcune utenze 5 % 40 % 2.0 %Gestione e manutenzione dell’impiantoRiduzione delle perdite di aria 80 % 20 % 16.0 %Sostituzione più frequente dei filtri 40 % 2 % 0.8 %

TOTALE 32.9 %Legenda: (1) % di impianti ove il provvedimento è fattibile e conveniente

(2) % di risparmio energetico(3) Contributo potenziale = Applicabilità * Risparmio

La trasformazione di mercato volta al risparmio energetico avrebbe ricadute suvari soggetti del panorama economico:• Gli utenti degli impianti di aria compressa vedrebbero incrementati i costi di

investimento e di manutenzione in vista di una riduzione della spesa ener-getica;

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union 17 Rapporto Conclusivo


• I produttori di impianti e componenti pneumatici potrebbero beneficiare diuna espansione del mercato dei componenti di alta qualità e di elevateprestazioni e dovrebbero rivedere di conseguenza le loro linee di prodotti;

• Le aziende elettriche avrebbero limitate riduzioni delle vendite;• I progettisti e gli istallatori di impianti di aria compressa potrebbero

beneficiare di nuove opportunità di prestazioni finalizzate al risparmio ener-getico.

Anche se gli interventi di risparmio energetico sono considerati più redditizirispetto a molti altri investimenti industriali, essi non sono realizzati in praticadalle imprese private per motivi essenzialmente organizzativi:• Mancanza di una voce di spesa specifica per l’aria compressa. Il con-

sumo di energia elettrica è "invisibile" per il top management, essendo dinorma una voce di costo relativamente piccola. Il consumo elettrico è gene-ralmente contabilizzato globalmente nel bilancio analitico di un’azienza:ridurre tale costo non rientra solitamente nelle responsabilità di uno specificomanager.

• Scarsa consapevolezza dei risparmi ottenibili. Il top management,responsabile per la politica degli acquisti e degli investimenti, non è consa-pevole dei possibili risparmi energetici. Le procedure per il controllo dei costidi attrezzamento, quali ad esempio gare di appalto, raramente fanno riferi-mento al consumo elettrico.

• Complessità della struttura decisionale. La responsabilità di possibiliprovvedimenti di ottimizzazione è diffusa fra varie funzioni decisionali:Produzione, Manutenzione, Acquisti, Amministrazione. E’ difficile raggiun-gere un accordo ad alto livello, trasversale rispetto alle responsabilità dei varisettori, su un argomento a basso livello di priorità come il consumo di elettri-cità.

Promozione degli impianti di aria compressa a basso consumo energetico

Le soluzioni devono essere orientate all’utente e volte a conseguire mutamentiin fattori organizzativi, che spesso costituiscono i maggiori impedimenti all’ado-zione di provvedimenti di risparmio energetico. L’obiettivo dev’essere quello diconvincere il management di alto livello a compiere le decisioni necessarie allosviluppo di programmi di risparmio energetico. Il presente studio ha valutato leseguenti misure.• Campagne informative, per aumentare la consapevolezza riguardo al con-

sumo energetico legato all’utilizzo di aria compressa;• Dimostrazioni di nuove tecnologie, per concetti innovatici quali com-

pressori mossi da turbine a gas, nuovi tipi di connettori per ridurre le perdite,nuovi sistemi di essiccazione, compressori mossi da espansori di gas osistemi automatici per il rilevamento di perdite;

• Campagne di misura per dare agli utenti una percezione diretta dei possibilirisparmi;

• Competizioni e premi per progetti impiantistici di alto livello;

Compressed Air SystemsRapporto Conclusivo 18 in the European Union


• Disseminazione delle informazioni, istruzione e sensibilizzazione sul ris-parmio energetico;

• Valutazione del Life Cycle Cost, che può mostrare come le decisioni ottimedal punto di vista ambientale sono tali anche dal punto di vista economico;

• Etichettatura e certificazione dei componenti e degli impianti;• Accordi su base volontaria con i produttori e gli utenti;• Sviluppo di linee guida per la stesura dei contratti per la subfornitura del

servizio di aria compresa;• Tassazione sull’energia consumata o sulle emissioni di CO2;• Sussidi, in particolare per i costi relativi al supporto decisionale e agli audits;• Normative che regolino gli standard di progetto e di gestione degli impianti.

Le azioni raccomandate sono state raggruppate in due programmi.• Il programma di sensibilizzazione (ARP), (simile all’attuale programma EU

GreenLights) contiene i provvedimenti di informazione e supporto decisio-nale, e potrebbe stimolare risparmi sino al 16.5 % dell’attuale consumo ener-getico per l’aria compressa.

• Il programma economico e normativo (ERP) (che include sussidi, tasse, emisure normative), potrebbe, congiuntamente all’ARP, portare a risparmi del24.7 %. (Si noti che il Gruppo di Studio è convinto che l’ERP sarebbe ineffi-cace in assenza dell’ARP.)

Secondo la visione del Gruppo di Studio, questi livelli di risparmio costituisconoobiettivi molto ambiziosi, che tuttavia potrebbero essere verosimilmente raggi-unti su un periodo di 15 anni. Per avere successo, i programmi dovranno ris-pettare le seguenti condizioni:• coordinamento ottimale dell’azione fra l’UE e gli Stati membri;• risorse finanziarie sufficienti;• risorse umane sufficienti;• supporto politico di alto livello, per favorire la partecipazione del settore priva-

to;• forte coinvolgimento delle industrie leader e delle organizzazioni di settore.

Proposta operativa per la Commissione

Il presente studio propone alla Commissione l’implementazione, anche parziale,del "Programma di sensibilizzazione", comprendente in particolare le tre misurechiave: campagna di sensibilizzazione, informazione e addestramento,campagna di misura. Si può stimare che tale programma potrebbe portare adun risparmio di 11 TWh/anno entro il 2015, equivalenti a oltre 5 milioni ditonellate di CO2.

Il suddetto programma sortirebbe maggiori effetti ove fosse inserito in uncontesto di sforzi coordinati a livello Europeo e dei singoli paesi, integrato inprogramma "Motor Driven Systems Challenge".

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union 19 Samenvatting


Samenvatting

Inleiding

De toepassing van perslucht in de industrie- en toeleveringsbranche is alombekend. De productie, het omgaan en het gebruik van perslucht isongecompliceerd. In de Europese Unie wordt circa 10 % van het industriëleelektriciteitsverbruik ingezet voor productie van perslucht ofwel ruim 80 TWhper jaar.

Ondanks dit hoge energieverbruik is de efficiency van veel persluchtinstallaties(DLA) laag: praktijkstudies tonen aan, dat besparingen mogelijk zijn tussen 5 –50 %. Een hoog technisch en economische besparingspotentieel wordt in deactuele markt- en beslissingsmechanismen niet bereikt. In het kader van dezestudie worden aanbevelingen uitgewerkt, waarmee bestaande drempelsoverwonnen kunnen worden, zodat energie- en kostenbesparingen inpersluchtinstallaties gerealiseerd kunnen worden.

Marktanalyse en technische energiebesparingsmaatregelen

Compressoren zijn relatief duurzame investeringsgoederen met eengemiddelde levensduur van circa 13 jaar voor compressoren tussen 10 en 90kW, resp. 16 jaar voor compressoren tussen 90 en 300 kW. De installaties zijngemiddeld 3.500 bedrijfsuren per jaar in bedrijf. Volgens de evaluatie vanmarktgegevens door de werkgroep, zijn er in de Europese Unie ongeveer321.265 compressoren in bedrijf. In de volgende tabel is een opstellinggemaakt naar vermogen en betreffende landen.

Land Totaal 10-110 kW 110-300 kWFrankrijk 43 765 28 885 14 880Duitsland 62 000 43 400 18 600Griekenland + Spanje + Portugal 35 660 25 685 9 976Italië 43 800 30 660 13 140Groot Brittanië 55 000 46 750 8 250Overige landen binnen EU 81 040 56 015 25 024Totalen 321 265 231 395 89 870

De markt voor persluchtinstallaties is op Europees niveau nagenoeg stabiel,met een groeipercentage van 1-2 % in Italië, Griekenland en Spanje en eenstagnatie (0-groei) in de overige EU-landen.

De totale efficiency van een persluchtinstallatie hangt zowel van de efficiencyvan de individuele componenten van de installatie af, als ook van hettotaalontwerp en de juiste inzet ervan. De economisch en technisch haalbareenergiebesparingen bedragen meer dan 30 %, welke in een tijdsbestek van

Compressed Air SystemsSamenvatting 20 in the European Union


15 jaar te realiseren zijn. Alle onderzochte technische maatregelen zijn in veeltoepassingen rendabel (terugverdientijden < 3 jaar). De belangrijkste energie-besparingsmaatregelen zijn:• verlaging van lekkageverlies.• verbetering van ontwerp van installaties.• toepassing van toerental-variabele aandrijvingen.• warmteterugwinning.

In de navolgende tabel wordt het energiebesparingpotentieel van de onder-zochte technische maatregelen samengevat:

Energiebesparingsmaatregel%

toepasbaar-heid (1)

%efficiency-

voordeel (2)

Totaal-potentieel (3)

Nieuwe installaties resp. vervangingsinvesteringenVerbeterde aandrijving(high efficiencymotoren, HEM) 25 % 2 % 0.5 %

Verbeterde aandrijving (toerental variabeleaandrijving, ASD) 25 % 15 % 3.8 %

Technische Optimalisering van decompressoren 30 % 7 % 2.1 %

Toepassing efficiënte en overkoepelendebesturingen 20 % 12 % 2.4 %

Warmteterugwinning voor gebruik inandere functies 20 % 20 % 4.0 %

Verbeterde persluchtconditionering(koeling, droging en filtering) 10 % 5 % 0.5 %

Totaalontwerp incl. installaties metverschillende drukken 50 % 9 % 4.5 %

Vermindering drukverlies inverdeelsystemen 50 % 3 % 1.5 %

Optimalisatie van persluchtapparatuur 5 % 40 % 2.0 %Het bedrijven van installaties en onderhoud/instandhoudingVermindering van lekkageverlies 80 % 20 % 16.0 %Het frequenter vervangen van filters 40 % 2 % 0.8 %

TOTALEN 32.9 %Legenda: (1) DLA, waarbij deze maatregelen toepasbaar en rendabel zijn

(2) energiebesparing van het jaarlijkse energieverbruik(3) Besparingspotentieel = toepasbaarheid * efficiencyvoordeel

Energiebesparingen zijn bij ontwerp van een nieuwe persluchtinstallatie op demeest gunstigste en efficiënte wijze te realiseren. Hoge besparingen zijn echterook in bestaande installaties te realiseren, door hoofdcomponenten tevervangen. Bovendien kunnen maatregelen, die met de instandhouding en hetbedrijven van de persluchtinstallatie in verbinding staan, in het bijzonder deregelmatige vervanging van filters en het opsporen en verhelpen vanlekkageverliezen, op elk willekeurig tijdstip tijdens de levensduur van eeninstallatie worden doorgevoerd.



Een efficiënte aanpak van maatregelen tot verhoging van de energie-efficiencyop basis van marktbeïnvloeding door politieke maatregelen, heeft uitwerking opde verschillende marktspelers:• Persluchtgebruikers moeten hogere kosteninvesteringen en kosten voor

onderhoud incalculeren, om zodoende van energiekostenreductie te kunnenprofiteren;

• Fabrikanten van persluchtinstallaties kunnen van verbeteringen in de marktvan hoogwaardige en efficiënte apparatuur/componenten, hun voordeel doenen dienen hun eigen productaanbod dienovereenkomstig daarop aan tepassen resp. te optimaliseren;

• De omzet van de energiebedrijven zal gering dalen;• Ingenieurbureaus, adviseurs en contractors in het bereik "perslucht"

kunnen van deze uitbreiding van mogelijkheden profiteren en gebruikersomtrent energie-efficiency adviseren.

Ofschoon de, voor verhoging van de energie-efficiency in persluchtinstallatiesnoodzakelijke technische maatregelen, veelal meer profitabel zijn dan andereinvesteringen in de industrie, worden deze vanwege organisatorische redenenveelal niet door de onderneming uitgevoerd. Dit kan in drie probleemgroepenworden samengevat:• Er bestaat geen kostenrekening voor persluchtproductie- en gebruik.

Het energieverbruik voor persluchtproductie blijft voor de directie"onzichtbaar", aangezien het in de meeste gevallen om relatief kleinebedragen gaat. Het energieverbruik voor persluchtproductie wordt in de regelals algemene kosten geboekt of is een bestanddeel van totaleenergiekosten. De verantwoording voor verlaging van deze kosten horenvaak niet tot de verantwoording van een manager.

• Onvoldoende bewustzijn van mogelijke besparingen. De directie, welkevoor de aanschafpolitiek en investeringsbeslissingen verantwoordelijk is, mistvaak het bewustzijn voor mogelijke energiebesparingen. Maatregelen, welkenodig zijn om de investering te optimaliseren, b.v. het maken van een bestek,hebben vaak nauwelijks invloed op het energieverbruik.

• Complex managementstructuur. De verantwoording voor mogelijkeoptimaliserings-maatregelen zijn veelal op verschillende management-niveaus verdeeld, zoals b.v. productie, onderhoud, aanschaf, financiering.Het is problematisch om de prioriteit voor energiekostenverlaging op deverschillende managementniveaus voldoende onder de aandacht te krijgen.

Maatregelen ter bevordering van energie-efficiënte persluchtinstallaties

Aangezien de argumentatie voor het omzetten van energie-efficiëntemaatregelen veelal vanwege organisatorische factoren bij de eindgebruikerterecht komen, moeten de mogelijke maatregelen aan deze eindgebruikerworden gerelateerd. Doel daarbij is, het management (bedrijfsleider, directeur,hoofd technische dienst) te overtuigen van de noodzaak van het doorvoerenvan energiebesparingplannen. In het kader van deze studie werden de

Compressed Air SystemsSamenvatting 22 in the European Union


volgende voorstellen voor maatregelen uitgewerkt en vond daaromtrent enwaardering plaats:• Reclamecampagne voor het verhogen van het bewustzijn omtrent het

energieverbruik bij persluchtinstallaties;• Demonstratie- en pilootprojecten met innovatieve concepten, zoals b.v.

door gasturbine of aardgasmotor aangedreven compressoren, nieuweleidingsverbinding-technieken om lekkages te verminderen, nieuweconcepten van persluchtconditionering, door aardgas-expansiemotoraangedreven compressoren of een geautomatiseerde lekkagebewaking.;

• Meetcampagne, om het energiebesparingpotentieel van persluchtinstallatiesen distributie op efficiënte wijze voor de eindgebruiker zichtbaar te maken;

• Concurrentie en prijzen: Motivatie tot optimaal installatieontwerp;• Informatiecampagnes, Opleidingen en kennisoverdracht m.b.t. energie-

besparingen bij persluchtinstallaties;• Lifetime-cyclecosts, welke aantonen, dat geoptimaliseerde en milieu-

gerichte beslissingen ook economisch optimaal zijn;• Kenmerken en certificatie van zowel installatiecomponenten alsook van

totale installaties;• Eigen verantwoordingsgevoel van fabrikanten en eindgebruikers;• Het opstellen van richtlijnen, om outsourcingcontracten voor

persluchtleveringen te verbeteren. Hetzelfde geldt voor contracting-contracten;

• Belastingheffing op energie of CO2;• Subsidies, in het bijzonder voor ondersteuning bij de keuze en concepten

van installaties en voor audits;• Voorschriften en normen voor systeemontwerp en toepassing.

De individuele maatregelen worden als richtlijnen in twee programma’s samen-gevat:• Het "Awareness Raising Programme (ARP)" (aandachtprogramma), (als

aanvulling op het bestaande EU GreenLights Programm) omvat demaatregelen in het bereik van informatie en ondersteuning van beslissingenen kan besparingen opleveren tot 16.5 % van het huidige energieverbruik bijpersluchtinstallaties.

• Het "Economic and Regulatory Programm (ERP)" (Efficiency, voor-schriften, subsidies, en belastingprogramma’s) kan, samen met de ARPbesparingen opleveren tot 24,7 % (daarbij is aan te merken, dat volgens hetprojectteam de ERP zonder het ARP niet kan functioneren).

Volgens de mening van de projectmedewerkers, is de realisatie van hetenergiebesparingpotentieel een behoorlijke inspanning, zijn echter van meningdat dit over een tijdsbestek van 15 jaar haalbaar moet zijn. Om succes te



kunnen boeken, zouden minimaal de volgende raamafspraken gemaakt moetenworden:• optimale afstemming binnen de EU en de maatregelen binnen de diverse

lidstaten;• voldoende beschikbare financiën, ook op lange termijn;• voldoende personele bezetting;• politieke ondersteuning op voldoende hoog niveau, om zodoende een brede

acceptatie in het openbaar te verkrijgen;• voldoende inzet van het economische bedrijfsleven en vakgespecialiseerde

ondernemingen.

Voorstel voor de Europese commissie

De studie stelt voor, dat de commissie het volledige "Awareness RaisingProgramme" of gedeelten daarvan uitvoert. Daarbij dienen minimaal de driekernactiviteiten "reclamecampagne", "informatie" en "opleiding", alsmede een"meetcampagne" gerealiseerd te worden. Een globale inventarisering levert tothet jaar 2015 een besparingspotentieel op van 11 TWh/jaar (of meer dan 5miljoen CO2).

Dit programma zal het meest efficiënt kunnen functioneren als op nationaal eneuropees niveau goed op elkaar afgestemde maatregelen worden getroffen,b.v. de integratie in een programma tot verbetering van energie-efficiency bijtoepassing en gebruik van (Motor Challenge Programme).

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union 25 Introduction


Introduction

Using compressed air in the manufacturing and service sectors is a commonpractice, since production, handling and use are safe and easy. Air-compressors are thus available in a large variety of types, to match differentuser requirements in terms of air quality, volume and pressure. Generatingcompressed air accounts for as much as 10 % of industrial consumption ofelectricity, and up to 30 % in certain sectors of activity, such as the glass indus-try. Estimates indicate that compressed air accounts for over 80 TWh of elec-tricity, and 55 million tons of CO2 per year for the EU.

Nonetheless, the energy efficiency of many compressed air systems is low:case studies show that savings in the range from 5 to 50 % are possible. It isclear that market functioning at present is not integrating economically feasiblemeasures into industry choices. In order to achieve the electricity savings and tomake cost effective use of possible improvements, there is a need for a markettransformation.

This document is the final report of the SAVE Compressed Air Systems MarketTransformation Study, which aims to identify measures, policies and pro-grammes which could lead to more energy efficient compressed air systems.The study adopts a systems approach, taking into account improvements at allstages of the compressed air use cycle. This type of approach is necessary be-cause the most important actions to improve efficiency involve system issues:• system operations and maintenance practices, in particular to reduce air

leaks and to properly maintain filters;• system design, including optimal pressure choice, compressor controls, pip-

ing topology, etc;• recovery of waste heat, which is a design issue related to the integration of

the compressed air system into its industrial environment. Thus, the study examines technical as well as organisational measures, whichcould be cost effective in transforming market functioning. The document is or-ganised according to the tasks of the project work plan:PHASE 1: DATA COLLECTION

Task 1 Characterisation of compressed air systems in the EUTask 2 Model energy consumption and growthTask 3 Technical and Economic Energy Savings Potential

PHASE 2: ANALYSIS AND ELABORATION OF RECOMMENDATIONSTask 4 Organisational aspects of energy savingsTask 5 Analysis of impactsTask 6 Identification of actions to promote energy efficient compressed air

systemsTask 7 Evaluation of the impact of measures

PHASE 3: DISSEMINATION OF RESULTSTask 8 Final report and dissemination of results

Compressed Air Systems 1. Characterisation of Com-in the European Union 27 pressed Air Systems in the EU


1. Characterisation of Compressed Air Systemsin the EU

Work on this task was organised with respect to the basic objective of the task:provide sufficiently accurate information to help identify priority energy savingsmeasures, and to judge their cost effectiveness. Data collection was co-ordinated with the other ongoing related SAVE studies:in particular the Pumps study, the Variable Speed Drive study and the Motorsstudy.

1.1 Data Collection Methods

The compressed air systems (CAS) market is a capital goods market, charac-terised by a relatively small number of producers for air compressors (the maincomponent of CAS). The market is highly segmented, by type of compressorand power range. Thus, confidentiality of data poses a major problem, becauseof the limited number of producers for each category of equipment1. In order to overcome this difficulty, the study has negotiated an agreement ondata collection with Pneurop, the European Compressed Air Equipment Manu-facturers' trade association. According to the terms of this agreement, the studyteam will develop data from national sources, essentially from the countries ofteam members (France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, with co-operation fromETSU in the United Kingdom). A numeric data collection guide was circulated to team members (copy in Ap-pendix 1). This very complete guide was used to obtain existing data. Of coursenot all data represented exists in each country. Best available data was used, inconjunction with optimal industrial statistics extrapolation methods, in order tocreate an aggregated skeleton model. This model was submitted to PneuropCompressor Committee. After review, a meeting was held (London, 16-17September, in conjunction with the International Compressed Air Systems con-ference) in order to further improve the model. Furthermore, Pneurop has agreed to circulate a qualitative data collection guideamong its members. A different data collection system was used for those target groups that are notrepresented by Pneurop: 1 Statistical confidentiality rules differ from country to country. In general, if a small number of

producers (from 3 to 5) account for a large part of a market, it is considered that publicationof data would violate confidentiality. The solution, from the statistician's point of view, is toaggregate data with other industries. Unfortunately, this makes it useless for the needs of adetailed study such as ours.

1. Characterisation of Com- Compressed Air Systemspressed Air Systems in the EU 28 in the European Union


• the high volume turbo compressor market. This is a speciality market. Thestudy concluded, that because of its nature (very large, custom designedsystems), this market segment is probably of little interest for the energysavings aims of the study;

• distribution networks, in those countries where distributors are not repre-sented by Pneurop member associations;

• end users;• energy providers;• CAS value chain service providers, particularly engineering consultants, and

compressed air outsourcing service providers. For those areas where the study directly collected data, specific data collectiontools have been developed, in the form of data collection guides, attached inAppendices 2 and 3.

1.2 Numeric Data

The level of numeric data produced by the study is summarised in the followingtables. The data was collected either through direct interviews with producersand users of CAS, or through a questionnaire designed specifically for Task 2and distributed to Pneurop and the study group members. With respect to thisquestionnaire, only scanty data is available. Furthermore, national data sourcesare inconsistent in their classification schemes. For instance, in France, data isavailable by power range but not by type of compressors (screw, piston, cen-trifugal, etc.), whereas in Germany, official statistics are classified by compres-sor types and volume flows, but not by power. Furthermore, some data may beconfidential, in market segments where less than 5 companies offer products. Inaddition, it is difficult to distinguish between process gas compressors and aircompressors. Data collected by the study group comes from bibliography, dis-cussions with manufacturers or associations, comments from experts from in-dustry and university, etc. According to a decision at the kick off meeting, confirmed in discussions withPneurop, the study is focused on CAS within the 10 kW to 300 kW power range.Smaller units, while very numerous, account for only a small part of total con-sumption of compressed air. Larger units, above 300 kW, are specifically de-signed machines. Because of their high cost, they are usually integrated intowell designed and maintained systems, for which the energy efficiency meas-ures covered in this study are not applicable. The total electricity consumption in the EU for CAS is approximately 80 TWh,that is to say roughly 10 % of the total electricity consumption in industry. Thestudy has agreed to the values listed in Table 1. Ademe source is "Prospectivede la consommation d'électricité dans l'industrie à l'horizon 2010, rapport d'en-quête sur les moteurs", March 1994, CEREN.



Table 1: Electricity consumption in compressed air systems

Country CAS con-sumption,

TWh

% ofindustrialelectricity

consumption

Source and remarks

France 12 11 Source ADEME, for 1990, from an inquiry, forcompressor > 10 kW

Germany 14 7 Statistisches Bundesamt, OIT, 19982

Italy 12 11 From Afisac, 1998 United Kingdom 10 10 From 'Best practices leaflet', 1996 Rest of the EU 32 11 Best guesses, based on 1996 electricity con-

sumption, extrapolated to industrial electricityconsumption per country

CAS consumption, TWh

12

14

1210

32 France Germany Italy UK Rest of the EU

Figure 1: CAS electricity consumption

The ADEME study allows disagregation of air compressor data by power range.The British Compressed Air Society proposes values for the United Kingdom.Afisac proposes some values for Italy, including the range 4-10 kW, which havebeen adjusted to the study's target power range. Table 2 presents the numberof installed machines and their division into power ranges. 2 While electricity consumption of CAS in Germany, expressed in absolute terms, is the largest

in any of the European countries, it appears to be the smallest as a percentage of industrialelectricity consumption. This could be due either to a difference in the statistical categoriesused in the different countries, or to the specificity of industry activity in Germany.



Table 2: Number of air compressors installed

Country Number ofsystems 10-110 kW 110-300 kW3 Source and remarks

France 43 765 28 885 (66 %) 14 880 (34 %) ADEME study, range of 10-70kW and more than 70 kW

Germany 62 000 43 400 (70 %) 18 600 (30 %) Share from German statistics,CA number from extrapolation

Italy 43 800 30 660 (70 %) 13 140 (30 %) AFISAC (CA number) andextrapolation

UnitedKingdom

55 000 46 750 (85 %) 8 250 (15 %) Insurance data, BCAS, ex-trapolation

Rest of the EU 116 700 81 700 (70 %) 35 000 (30 %) Extrapolation Total 321 265 231 395 (72 %) 89 870 (28 %)

Note that while the data for the total number of compressors is derived fromreliable data for France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom, the break-down between the 2 power ranges depends on extrapolations and estimates.The study team believes that the above data is an accurate representation ofthe situation, given existing data sources. Nevertheless, some contradictoryevidence indicates that the number of large machines might be somewhat lowerthan these estimates.

Number of systems

0

30000

60000

90000

France Germany Italy UK Rest ofthe EU

Num

ber

10-110 kW 110-300 kW

Figure 2: Number of air compressors by power range

3 There is a large difference between the proportion of large machines in the United Kingdom

and in other countries. This is surprising, given that statistics for the United Kingdom andFrance, in particular, are both considered to be of a very reliable nature, resulting from pro-cedures which actually counted over 100 000 machines in the field. The difference might bedue to the size of companies which use CAS in each country.



The other parameters are estimated using data from ADEME, Afisac and Pneu-rop. We propose:• for the growth rate of the installed stock of air compressors:

− 2 % for Italy, Greece and Spain, for the 5 years to come, 1 % for the fol-lowing 5 years, afterwards only a renewal of the stock,

− a 0 % growth rate for the rest of the EU countries,• an average lifetime of:

− 13 years for compressors between 10 and 110 kW,− 16 years between 110 and 300 kW,

• an average power of− 42 kW for compressors between 10 and 110 kW,− 132 kW between 110 and 300 kW,

• an average power loss of 15 % upstream from the compressor (motor powerloss, cooling, etc.),

• 3500 hours as the number of operating hours per year. Operating hours vary between countries and years: 3500 hours in Italy, 2700hours in France in 1990 but only 2000 hours in 1984. Generally speaking, oper-ating hours increase with power. Specific information on age is available: inFrance, the average age of installed machines is 11 years and one third of thestock in the EU is older than 13 years.

1.3 Qualitative Data on CAS Decision Processes

The basic aim of qualitative data collection is to understand:• from the CAS users' point of view, the key decision criteria affecting user

choice in purchases. Specifically, how energy consumption issues are (or arenot) integrated into the decision process.

• from the CAS manufacturers' and service providers' point of view, how en-ergy efficiency issues (and more broadly, operating costs) are integrated intosales strategies and practices.

In order to collect this information, in depth interviews were conducted within 19companies: 7 in France (of which 3 service providers), 4 in Germany and 8 inItaly. (See Appendix 1 for detailed information on these interviews.)



1.3.1 CAS Users

Qualitative data collection, through in depth interviews with representative CASusers, was focused on determining users' performance criteria in the choice anddesign of systems. Data collected (Appendix 1) shows that for users, perform-ance criteria are the following:• Reliability. Since compressed air is an essential part of the production proc-

ess for most industrial compressed air users, system reliability is the absoluteprimary performance criterion. System breakdown usually equates to lostproduction, and is therefore very costly. The cost of lost production is cer-tainly viewed by most users as more important than potential energy savings.

• Quality. Compressed air quality is important for two main reasons:− Damage to production equipment. Impurities in compressed air can

cause breakdowns in production equipment that uses the air. In this case,quality of air is an issue in many respects similar to the reliability issuementioned above.

− Product quality. In some production systems, compressed air enters di-rectly into the finished product, or comes into contact with the product (forexample in food processing, pharmaceuticals and electronics). In thiscase, poor air quality can lead to reduced product quality.

• Cost. It seems that cost is the least important performance criterion for us-ers. This is an important result for the study, since the basic ts1ool that mustbe used to encourage energy efficiency is cost reduction. Several reasonsseem to explain the low priority which users give to compressed air costs,even in highly cost competitive industries.− No compressed air cost accounting. In many cases, users are not

aware of compressed air costs. Neither compressed air operating costs,nor energy for compressed air, appear as distinct items in corporate costaccounting. Compressed air energy costs are most often included in gen-eral overhead costs.

− Limited management time. Managers do not feel it is worth their time toimprove energy efficiency, since they feel this would have a negligible im-pact on total production costs. The idea that compressed air energy costsare a minor cost item is sometimes false. This issue is thus related to thepreceding issue on lack of information on compressed air energy costs.

− Lack of awareness of possible savings. In some cases, even when costaccounting information on compressed air is available within the organisa-tion, managers with decision making power are not sufficiently aware ofthe existence of cost effective energy savings measures.

− Complex management structure. Because of the nature of compressedair energy costs, responsibility for cost reduction measures is often dividedbetween managers for maintenance, production, purchasing and finance.Co-ordination between these functions is a problem in all enterprises. Itgenerally requires very high level decisions to cut across the conflictingpriorities of these functions, and this type of decision is rare for com-pressed air, which is not viewed as a strategic business issue for users.



Energy Services and Energy Service Providers Energy services is a term used to refer to services that require energy in

their production. Examples are lighting, heating, refrigeration, motivepower, transportation, communication, etc. The use of this term is impor-tant, because it highlights the distinction between the energy services thatfinal users require, and the primary energy used to produce these services.Compressed air can be used, for instance, to provide motive power (com-pressed air actuated pistons, pneumatic materials transport), cleaning (asin dust blowoff) or control (pneumatic industrial control logic devices).

Energy products – such as gasoline, electricity, piped gas, piped steam orchilled water – permit the transportation and/or storage of energy, and theproduction of energy services. They are most often commercially sold assuch by the existing Power Utility Companies. Compressed air can be con-sidered to be an energy product, although, until recently, few Power Utili-ties sold compressed air.

Energy service providers are organisations that produce and distributeenergy products or energy services. Energy service providers may be pri-vately or publicly owned businesses, national or municipal agencies, co-operative organisations or the end users themselves. In the past, the sec-tor was mainly limited to power utilities that sold energy products. Clientspaid for the quantity (litres of gasoline), or energy content (kWh of electric-ity) of the energy product. Today new actors are entering the market, andbilling is evolving towards a model in which users pay for the energy serv-ice rendered. Energy service providers are thus moving downstream in theenergy value chain, sometimes going as far as installing end use devices.They often provide an integrated service composed of the equipment, themaintenance and the operation of installations that produce several typesof energy services. This business model, if properly controlled throughregulations and contractual arrangements, can permit energy service pro-viders to aid the development of rational use of energy.

1.3.2 Compressed Air Service Providers

As is the case with many "housekeeping" functions in industry, a major currenttrend is for businesses to outsource compressed air production4. The businessis dominated by a small number of large service providers, most of them fallinginto one of the following categories:• industrial gas suppliers (e. g. Linde, Air Liquide, Messer, BOC, Praxair),• general energy service providers (e. g. Vivendi/Dalkia, Suez-Lyonnaise/Elyo,

Harpen, ECH),

4 Because of its rapidly growing importance in France, ADEME has commissioned a study on

outsourcing, carried out by ADAGE consultants. Much of the information in this paragraph isdrawn from this study.



• power utility companies (e. g. Town owned utilities, EnBW, E.ON, HEW,RWE, EDF).

The strategy of the companies in the first group is to provide an integrated solu-tion for all the industrial gas needs of a plant. They might install a system con-sisting of a large compressor unit coupled with membrane filtration systems toprovide nitrogen and oxygen as well as compressed air. The second group of companies also aims for an integrated solution, based ona variety of energy services, such as cogeneration or trigeneration, combiningelectricity, heat and cold, with compressed air. Finally, power utilities have begun to broaden their range of services, often cre-ating specialised subsidiaries with a full line of compressed air or industrial gasservices. Outsourcing of compressed air can substantially modify the way in which deci-sions are made on system design and equipment choice. The actual impact ofoutsourcing on energy consumption depends on the specifics of the contractualarrangement between the client and the service provider. Since clients' foremost concerns are system reliability and air quality, servicecontracts usually have stringent clauses on these 2 elements. Some contractsprovide for a requirement to put repair people in the field within a certain time (4hours, 8 hours, etc.). Some contracts have penalties if the system stays out ofservice for more than a contractually specified period. Service providers gener-ally install telemetering equipment to monitor key system parameters that helpthem perform preventive maintenance, so as to prevent breakdowns. We have chosen to organise our analysis of the energy impact of outsourcingby elements of the compressed air system: inside the compressor house;downstream from the compressor house.

1.3.2.1 Inside the Compressor House

Because of their large size and technical expertise, compressed air service pro-viders are generally capable of designing and installing optimal systems. Thekey to understanding the impact of outsourcing on energy consumption lies withidentifying the specific criteria for optimality applied by the service providers.This depends on the precise type of contractual arrangement. Several basictypes of contracts exist.• Equipment sales, most often linked to a service contract. The service pro-

vider has no incentive to design systems for high energy efficiency.• Leasing of entire systems, almost always in conjunction with a service con-

tract. As with the preceding type of contract, the service provider has no in-centive to design systems for high energy efficiency.



• Sale of compressed air. This type of contract must be subdivided accordingto three criteria:− Who pays for electricity? If the service provider pays for electricity, he

will be motivated to design systems with high energy efficiency. On theother hand, if the client pays for electricity, the service provider has littleincentive to install efficient systems. On the contrary, inefficient systemswill run more hours, and will thus be more profitable for the service pro-vider.

− How is compressed air production measured? The simplest measure-ment system simple counts hours of compressor operation. In this case,the service provider has no direct incentive to maintain the compressor atoptimal efficiency5. Measuring airflow requires more sophisticated and ex-pensive equipment, and a more complex billing system. This type ofequipment requires frequent calibration of the meters. Nonetheless, whenactual air production is measured, the service provider has an incentive toinstall equipment that stays efficient longer, and to maintain the efficiency.

− Who pays for air drying? In some systems, air drying accounts for a sig-nificant portion of energy;� direct electricity consumption for heaters;� air consumption in adsorption dryers;� indirect consumption because of pressure drop across the dryers.

To summarise, the impact of outsourcing on energy consumption depends onwho pays for electricity and on how production is measured. The impact can bepositive or negative, depending on the type of contract used.

1.3.2.2 Downstream from the Compressor House

Maintenance of the air distribution system is a separate issue from air produc-tion. Of course, distribution air leaks constitute one of the major causes of ex-cessive energy consumption. In some cases, companies who chose to outsource compressed air productionalso reduce maintenance staff. In this case, the distribution network may be lesswell maintained, and overall system efficiency may drop. On the other hand,some compressed air service contracts include leak detection (usually as an"add on" to a basic contract). In this case, overall system efficiency could im-prove. Another factor is adaptation to changing needs. A company that outsourcesmay no longer maintain internal management capacity to detect changes incompressed air needs. This may be important if compressed air consumptiondecreases, in which case downsizing the system could reduce operating costs.

5 Note that compressor efficiency decreases with time. Of course an ageing compressor,

whose efficiency is dropping, will also be prone to breakdown. Thus some aspects of pre-ventive maintenance will also help maintain compressor efficiency.



1.3.2.3 The Importance of the Contract

In conclusion, outsourcing can have a negative or positive impact on overallenergy consumption. The most important factors which determine the nature ofthe impact are the contractual clauses which determine if:• the service provider is paid on the basis of real measured air production;• the service provider is in some way made responsible for the distribution

network efficiency, through a leak detection programme.

Compressed Air Systems 2. Model Energy Con-in the European Union 37 sumption and Growth


2. Model Energy Consumption and Growth

2.1 Aim of Model Development

The aim of Task 2 was to build a simple model of energy consumption (namedstock model) for compressed air systems, for the different Member States of theEuropean Union. This model, using a bottom-up approach, estimates the num-ber of air compressors in the future, the probable rate of growth of their energyconsumption, as well as the past, present and future annual energy consump-tion. The number of compressors and the energy consumption in the future are cal-culated under different market conditions. These market conditions are calledscenarios. In accordance with the other tasks, we use three scenarios, as de-scribed later:• BAU (Business As Usual),• ARP (Awareness Raising Programme)• ERP (Economic and Regulatory Programme). Electricity consumption is based on the number of installed compressors, ontheir power and on average operating time. The model integrates the effects ofnew compressors entering and old ones leaving the stock. It allows evaluationof policy changes on consumption. The results have been cross checked withexisting consumption estimates. Data collected in Task 1 have been integrated into this energy consumptiongrowth model. We present here the complete model, as it was developed andas it could have been used if all the necessary data had been available. Due tothe limited availability of data, we also present a simplified model, presentedhereafter. The data used, collected mainly with the aid of Pneurop, is presented,as are the results in terms of installed machines.

2.2 Description of the Model

For a type i of compressor sold at the year j, the average unitary yearly con-sumption Cauy(i) at the year n (j<=n) is

),(*),(*),(),( jihoajirjiPjiCauy =

Where: P(i, j) is the average power of a compressor (type i) sold in year j r(i, ,j) is the efficiency of a compressor (type i) sold in year j hoa(i, j) is the number of operating hours of a compressor (type i) sold in year j

2. Model Energy Con- Compressed Air Systemssumption and Growth 38 in the European Union


hoursoperatingofnbefficiencypoweryeartypenConsumptio ni ___**),( =

The total electricity consumption for a type i at the year n (Ctot(i,n)) is the sumof each Cauy(i,j) calculated on all the compressors sold since 1985 and still inuse at the year n

),(*),,(*),(),(,1985 ,1985

jiCauykjiremainjisalesyeartypeCtotnk nj

ni � �= =

=

Where: Sales (i,j) is the number of compressor (type i) sold in year j Remain (i,j,k) is the percentage of compressors sold in year j and still

remaining in use in year n. The total consumption is the sum on all types of compressors. The stock model can calculate results both for the past and the future. The pastvalues, where pertinent data series are available, are used to validate the modeland the algorithms. According to the lifetime of the compressors (15 years, intheory) we could cover the period from 1985 until 2015. But we do not knowwhen the existing compressors were sold and how many remain in use. What isknown is the stock installed (Nb(i)) today. We have no data for the compressorsinstalled between 1985 and now. We consider, in agreement with Pneurop, that working with hypothesis for thepast values would not significantly improve the quality of the results. Due to thislack of data, we propose to simplify the equation: the year of sale is not takeninto account and we will study the number of machines and the consumptiononly from 1999 until 2015.

2.3 The Simplified Model, the Data Used, and the Results

The simplified model

We propose to use the following simplified model. It may be developed frompartial data available for one or more years.

�=

=typesalli

n iCauyiNbyearCtot )(*)()(

�=

=typesalli

n ihaoiriPiNbyearCtot )(*)(*)(*)()(



Then we define three scenarios:• a business as usual scenario (BAU), based on the current growth of equip-

ment and no specific improvement on energy efficiency• and scenarios of energy efficiency, based on measures and actions aimed at

improving energy efficiency. These measures and actions are grouped intotwo programmes for action, which give rise to two corresponding scenarios,− the scenario ARP (Awareness Raising Programme)− and the ERP (Economic and Regulatory Programme).

We will compare the results and the main differences between the scenarios interms of energy consumption in Task 7.

The data available

The following tables present the data available, mainly coming from Task 1.

Table 3: Number of air compressors installed in 1999

Country Total 10-110 kW 110-300 kW

France 43 765 28 885 14 880

Germany 62 000 43 400 18 600

Greece + Spain + Portugal 35 660 25 685 9 976

Italy 43 800 30 660 13 140

United Kingdom 55 000 46 750 8 250

Rest of the EU 81 040 56 015 25 024

Total 321 265 231 395 89 870

Average power 71 kW 42 kW 132 kW

Table 4: Electricity consumption for CAS in 1999

Total 10-110 kW 110-300 kWCountry[TWh]

France 12 9 3

Germany 14 10.5 3.5

Greece + Spain + Portugal 9 6.6 2.2

Italy 12 9 3

United Kingdom 10 7.5 2.5

Rest of the EU 23 17 6

Total 80 60 20

2. Model Energy Con- Compressed Air Systemssumption and Growth 40 in the European Union


Note: consumption and number of machines for countries other than France,Germany, Italy and Germany have been estimated according to their percent-age in the European electricity consumption. For Greece, Spain and Portugal,this amounts to, respectively, 1.5, 8.0 and 1.6 %. This method of estimation wasused due to the lack of other data for these countries. Greece, Spain and Por-tugal are treated separately from other countries, because the number of in-stalled systems is growing in these 3 countries.

Results: Number of installed systems

We indicate here the different hypothesis used by the model for the changesoccurring in the number of installed compressed air systems. The hypothesisdescribed here are drawn from Task 1.

In the model, the compressed air systems currently running in the EU countriesare called ‘Old systems’. Their number decreases from year to year.

Growth rate of the installed compressed air systems is:• 2 % for Italy, Greece, Portugal and Spain, for the five years to come, 1 % for

the following five years and afterwards renewal of the stock only,• 0 % for the rest of the EU countries.

Systems entering the stock due to the building of new installations are called‘New systems’ in the model.

The renewal of the stock is realised in 15 years; that is to say that 6.7 % of thesystems are retrofitted or upgraded each year. These systems are called ‘Up-graded systems’ in the model.

These values are presented in the table below. Table 5 summarises the as-sumption for the calculations.

Table 5: Growth rates for CAS in the EU

Growth rate year [%]For 1999

Country

Oper-atinghours

Aver-age

power[kW]

Lifetimeyears 1-5 5-10 > 10

Stockrenewalper year

France 78 0 0 0

Germany 65 0 0 0

Greece + Spain + Portugal 71 2 1 0

Italy 78 2 1 0

United Kingdom 52 0 0 0

Rest of the EU 82 0 0 0

Average value 3500 71 15 6.70 %



These hypothesis allow us to calculate the number of remaining old systems,new and upgraded systems for each year between 2000 and 2015. This is cal-culated:• individually for France, Germany, Italy, United Kingdom,• for Greece, Portugal and Spain together• and for the other EU countries together.

Figure 3 shows the number of machines installed until 2015. In 2015, the stockof installed machines reaches 334010 systems (compared to 321265 today),that is to say an increase of 4 %. The stock of CAS is the same for all scenar-ios.

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

80000

90000

1999

2005

2010

2015

1999

2005

2010

2015

1999

2005

2010

2015

1999

2005

2010

2015

1999

2005

2010

2015

1999

2005

2010

2015

old upgraded new

France Germany UnitedKingdom

Greece, Portugal,

Spain

Italy Rest of the EU

Figure 3: Number of new and upgraded CAS until 2015

Compressed Air Systems 3. Technical and Economicin the European Union 43 Energy Savings Potential


3. Technical and Economic Energy Savings Potential

The chain that links the source of electricity to the service rendered consists of:

Drive � Compressor � Air treatment � Network � End use device

Controls

Figure 4: Process chain for CAS

System performance depends on the performance of each element, but evenmore on overall system design and operation. The study team has identifiedand examined the following technical measures that could improve overall per-formance of the CAS process chain:

• improvement of drives: use of high efficiency motors; integration of variablespeed drives into compressors;

• optimal choice of the type of compressor, as a function of specific end useapplications;

• improvement of compressor technology, particularly in multi-stage compres-sors;

• use of sophisticated control systems;

• recuperating waste heat for use in other functions;

• improved air treatment: reducing pressure and energy losses in cooling, dry-ing and filtering; optimising filtering and drying as a function of users' needs,and of temperature conditions;

• overall system design, including multi-pressure systems;

• reducing frictional pressure losses in networks;

• reducing air leaks;

• optimising certain end use devices: more efficient, better adapted devices, or,in some applications, replacing compressed air by electrical or hydraulicsystems;

• measuring and tracking system performance. Work done during the study has confirmed that all of these technical measurescan improve energy efficiency in many installations. Furthermore, all of these

3. Technical and Economic Compressed Air SystemsEnergy Savings Potential 44 in the European Union


measures are cost effective (that is to say they have a payback time of lessthan 36 months6) in some applications.

3.1 Improvement of Drives

The use of high efficiency motors improves energy efficiency. The integration ofadjustable speed drives (ASD) into compressors could lead to energy efficiencyimprovements, depending on load characteristics.

With respect to high efficiency motors, the possible gains would be concen-trated in new systems, since it appears unlikely that users could be convincedto retrofit high efficiency motors to existing machines, even at replacement timefor the motor. The biggest differences in motor performance are found in smallmachines7. Since these machines are most often sold as stand alone units, itwould appear that energy efficiency labelling might be the most appropriate toolfor achieving these gains. Nevertheless, since most of these machines operaterelatively few hours per year, high efficiency motors would be cost effective for alimited proportion of machines.

Integration of speed controllers into a CAS would be very cost effective for vari-able load conditions, considered to be about one quarter of installations. Theirinstallation would be in great part limited to the sale of new compressors, sinceretrofitting adjustable speed drives to existing machines poses a host of techni-cal problems.

In the case of multi-machine installations, the adjustable speed drive would beintegrated into only one of the machines, and would most likely be linked tosome type of sophisticated control technology, which would start and stop fixedspeed machines as well as vary the speed of one machine, so as to adjust out-put to system demand.

6 The 36 month cut-off period for payback time is a "quick and dirty" method for defining eco-

nomic feasibility. Of course more sophisticated accounting/economic tools, such as NPV orIRR (Net Present Value, or Internal Rate of Return) which take into account the cost of bor-rowing or raising capital are more accurate. Nevertheless, NPV calculations are time con-suming, and must be done in detail to take into account the specificity of the financial situa-tion of a particular enterprise. For the overall evaluation needs of the present study, a pay-back time criterion appears sufficient, in particular since the term is short, and since currentinterest rates are low. The 36 month cut-off period is the upper limit for what industrial enter-prises use as decision criterion for energy efficiency investments. Use of sophisticated finan-cial tools (ESCOs, etc.), can make projects with longer payback times feasible. Neverthe-less, these tools are only applicable to large projects (for instance a very large compressorinstallation).

7 Note that small machines (< 10 kW) are outside the scope of this study.



3.2 Optimal Choice of the Type of Compressor

The market segment studied (10-300 kW) is today largely dominated (75 % ofsales) by oil injected screw compressors because of their reliability, simplicityand relatively low cost. Nevertheless, a large number of alternative technologiesexist: piston, vane, scroll, centrifugal, and turbine compressors all have theirmarket shares. The choice between oil injected or oil free machines, as well asbetween single stage or multi-stage machines constitute other parameters ofchoice. Within each family of compressors, there are multiple variants. The fol-lowing diagram illustrates the major families of compressors.

Source: BCAS/Pneurop

Figure 5: Major families of compressors

The optimal choice of compressor technology must take into account the spe-cific needs of the user's compressed air system. This choice can affect the en-ergy efficiency of the system, both in terms of compressor performance, butalso in terms of the multiple interactions with other elements of system design.In particular, the benefit of multi stage systems for high duty cycle installationsis a point which should be stressed.



3.3 Improvement of Compressor Technology

Research and development is quite active in the field of compressor technology.Efforts are being carried out to improve existing families of compressors, butalso to develop new types, usually designed for niche markets. Another aspectof research is the improvement of production methods, for instance to achievecloser clearances so as to reduce gap leakage within machines.

Nevertheless, it must be kept in mind that compressor performance is limited bythe laws of thermodynamics. Thus, while R&D will certainly make possible smallincremental improvements in energy efficiency, the potential for technologicalimprovement within the compressor is much smaller than the gains that can beachieved through improved system design and operations. Furthermore, in thehighly competitive market for compressors, there is already great pressure onthe manufacturers to develop better performing machines.

For these reasons, the study has concluded that there is little potential foraccelerating improvement in compressor technology through institutionalaction by the European Union or the Member States.

3.4 Use of Sophisticated Control Systems

Sophisticated control systems are used to match compressor output to systemair demand. They save energy by optimising the transitions between the run-ning, idling and stopped states of the compressor. Sequencers optimise the op-eration of multi machine installations. These control systems can often be usedin conjunction with speed controllers. Predictive controls apply fuzzy logic orother algorithms to predict future air demand from past performance of the sys-tem.

As the price of electronic control technology comes down, and as familiarity withthese technologies increases in industry, their use is rapidly expanding, andtheir application to compressors is becoming more common.

These controls can be fitted to new machines or to many existing installations.

3.5 Recuperating Waste Heat

By their very nature, compressors generate heat, which can, in some circum-stances, be used for other functions. Since this heat is so to speak "free", theadvisability of using it depends on the existence of a thermal load whose char-acteristics match the available heat, and for which the necessary equipment(heat exchangers, piping, regulator, backup heat source, ...) are available andreasonably priced as compared to alternative solutions. Design of waste heatrecovery must assure proper cooling of the compressor. The waste heat from acompressor is often too low in temperature, or too limited in quantity, to ade-



quately match the needs for industrial process heat. Climate and seasonalityalso affect the cost/benefit ratio. Typical applications are more often for spaceheating, when a need exists in proximity to the compressor location.

The cost effectiveness of recuperating waste heat depends on the alternatesources of energy which are available. It might be very cost effective if the al-ternative solution would be electric heat. It may be less cost effective if naturalgas, waste process heat or waste process gas could be used.

3.6 Improved Air Treatment

Cooling, drying and filtering equipment causes pressure drops. Furthermore,drying equipment uses compressed air or electricity for filter regeneration. Thus,optimising filtering and drying as a function of users' needs is a major source forenergy savings. The possible measures are:• dynamically adjust the degree of drying to outside temperature conditions.

This is applicable when drying is done essentially to maintain the air abovethe dew point, so as to prevent condensation in the system. It may be inap-propriate if drying is required to meet a specific process requirement for airquality.

• adjust the degree of oil or dust filtering to match the precise needs of thesystem. Over-filtering wastes energy.

• add filtering capacity. Increasing the number of filters in parallel decreases airvelocity, thus reducing the pressure drop. This can often be a very cost ef-fective investment, for both new or existing systems.

• increase or optimise the frequency of filter replacement. Blocked filters in-crease pressure drop. Maintenance procedures should include regularchecking of filters, and replacement when necessary. Automatic sensing andalarm equipment to warn of excessive pressure drop can be very cost effec-tive.

3.7 Overall System Design

The basic objective of good system design is to match air pressure, volume andquality to the needs of the various end use devices. While this can be straightforward, it can also be very complex if end use devices in the system have dif-fering, or varying, needs. Two examples of system design issues are:• single pressure or multi-pressure systems. Typical systems are designed to

deliver air at the highest pressure and air quality needed by any of the enduse devices. This can waste substantial energy if only a small percentage ofdevices really need this high pressure or high air quality. Alternative solutionsmight be to:− build a system delivering a lower pressure, and add pressure boosters for

those devices requiring higher air pressure



− provide adequate filtering for the majority of applications, and add specificlocal filtering for those devices which require it;

• limit pressure variations in the system. Inadequate control systems can leadto wide pressure variations, which waste energy. Furthermore, when par-ticular end use devices have very erratic demand characteristics, it can beuseful to install air storage capacity close to these devices, so as to reducepressure variations.

3.8 Optimising End Use Devices

Many end use devices are energy inefficient. For instance in blowing and dryingapplications, ventilators can often be used with an energy savings benefit. Insome applications, electrical or hydraulic equipment can cost effectively replacecompressed air end use devices, and be more energy efficient. While equip-ment manufacturers' catalogues usually state compressed air requirements fortheir machines, users do not always take this into account in their purchasingdecisions.

The optimisation of end use devices is one aspect of the system design issue.While hand held pneumatic tools can be easily replaced by more efficient mod-els, much CAS use results from devices (pistons, motors, etc.) which are com-ponents of large fixed machines, for which replacement or upgrading can bevery costly.

3.9 Reducing Frictional Pressure Losses in Networks

Pressure losses in CA networks depend on multiple factors: topology (ring orstar networks, …); geometry (pipe diameter, radius of curvature), materialsused, etc. Correct design and installation can optimise frictional losses.Figure 6 illustrates an example of a CA network.

Despite the importance of the network, a majority of CAS have less than optimalnetworks.• At the time of factory construction, the CA network is often installed by the

same enterprise responsible for all the piping or "fluids" work. These enter-prises are often not qualified for design and installation of CA networks.

• Undersized piping is a common situation. Even systems which are initiallywell designed can become "energy wasters" if CA use increases above thelevel for which the system was initially designed.

• Lack of shut-off valves makes it impossible to close off parts of systems, forexample for machinery which does not operate during night shifts.

Since it is difficult and expensive to improve an existing network, correct designand installation, including a margin for future growth, is an important issue fornew systems.



Source: BCAS/Pneurop

Figure 6: An example of a CA network

3.10 Reducing Air Leaks

Reducing air leaks is probably the single most important energy savings meas-ure, applicable to almost all systems. Awareness of the importance of a regularleak detection programme is low, in part because air leaks are invisible, andgenerally cause no damage.

Correct design and installation of the network can greatly diminish air leaks, forinstance through the use of modern, no air loss, condensate draining devices,or through the specification of high quality, long life quick disconnect couplings.Nevertheless, the essential issue is one of proper maintenance. Hand held leak"sniffers" which detect the noise of air leaks can reduce the cost of leak detec-tion.

3.11 Measuring and Tracking System Performance

Measuring and tracking system performance does not in and of itself improveenergy efficiency. Nevertheless, it is often the first step in improving energy effi-ciency, for two basic reasons:



• Measuring air use and energy consumption is essential in determiningwhether changes in maintenance practices or investment in equipment couldbe cost effective. As long as the per unit cost of delivered compressed air isunknown, it is difficult to initiate the management process necessary to im-prove a system.

• Tracking of system performance is a valuable tool to detect performancedegradation, or changes in the nature or quantity of air use.

Three basic parameters – air flow, air pressure, electricity consumption – mustbe measured and recorded in order to evaluate system performance. While thisseems simple in principle, the interpretation of this data can be difficult, particu-larly in variable load applications. Measuring air flow also poses technical prob-lems, and retrofitting reliable measuring equipment can be difficult or impossibleif this was not taken into account at the time of system design and installation8.The study has concluded that medium and large size systems should be de-signed and installed so as to facilitate the measurement of air flow. Institutionalaction to encourage (or even mandate) this might be useful. Where information on air flow is not available, low cost pressure sensingequipment can still be very useful, for instance to measure the pressure differ-ential across filters or the pressure loss in the network, or to detect excessivepressure variation in a system.

3.12 Synthesis of Technical Measures

Measures to improve energy efficiency of CAS are relevant at different stagesof a CAS's life cycle:• system design, bidding or purchasing procedures• installation• major component replacement or upgrading• preventive and corrective maintenance Table 6 gives an approximate indication of the phase at which each of themeasures described above could be applied. The best opportunity for achieving energy savings is at the time when a newsystem is built from scratch. At this moment, the entire range of energy savingsmeasures is open. Nevertheless, this situation is relatively rare in the context ofEuropean industry. With the shift to a service and information economy, with therationalisation of production and merger of production sites, the number of in-dustrial plants is decreasing. Few new plants are being built in Europe, exceptin those Member States which are still in a phase of industrialisation. 8 The most common type of flow meter must be installed in a turbulence free pipe, which must

be several times as long as its diameter. In some systems, no adequate place exists to in-stall the meter.



Table 6: Compressed air system life cycle

systemdesign,

purchasinginstallation component

replacement maintenance

Improvement of drives ++ ++ +Optimal choice of compressor ++ +Sophisticated control systems ++ ++Recuperating waste heat ++ ++Improved air treatment ++ ++ ++Overall system design ++ +Optimising end use devices ++ +Reducing frictional losses ++ + +Reducing air leaks + + + ++Measuring system performance ++ + ++

The much more frequent situation is that of replacement of major componentsof an existing system, or extension of existing systems. In this situation, mostmeasures are possible, but some are more difficult, in particular those relatingto the system design: air network, multi-pressure systems, choice of type of enduse devices (other than hand held tools). It is estimated that possible gains inexisting system at the time of major overhaul is 2/3 of the efficiency gains pos-sible in new systems which are designed and built from scratch. Some energy savings measures can be retrofitted to existing systems at anymoment, independently of the life cycle of major system components. This istrue for example for the introduction of some types of sophisticated control sys-tems, or the recovery of waste heat. Nevertheless, these measures usually re-quire an engineering study and are thus more difficult to foster, and wouldprobably be limited to the larger systems. In any case, it appears to the studyteam that it would be more cost effective to target institutional efforts on the de-cision making process at the time of major component replacement or upgrad-ing, rather than to waste efforts on the more limited and complex retrofit meas-ures. Actions which are related to maintenance and operations, in particular fre-quency of filter changes and air leak detection, constitute a major opportunityfor energy savings. These measures can be introduced at any moment in thelife cycle of a CAS. The study team has consulted a number of experts to obtain estimates of theapplicability of energy savings measures, and on the potential for gains. Experi-ence has shown that industrial enterprises are loath to allocate precious capitalresources to energy savings investments, even when they show high rates ofreturn on investment. Thus, the economic cut-off point was chosen at 36months payback time. This is a conservative cut-off point, since it provides an



internal rate of return (profitability) of over 25 %, which is significantly higherthan the average rate of return on industrial investments. Table 7 resumes the findings of the study.

Table 7: Energy savings measures

Energy savingsmeasure

%applica-bility (1)

%gains

(2)

Potentialcontribution

(3)Comments

System installation or renewalImprovement of drives(high efficiency motors)

25 % 2 % 0.5 % Most cost effective in small (<10 kW) systems

Improvement of drives(Speed Control)

25 % 15 % 3.8 % Applicable to variable load systems. In multi-machine installations, only one machine shouldbe fitted with a variable speed drive. The esti-mated gain is for overall improvement of sys-tems, be they mono or multi-machine.

Upgrading of compres-sor

30 % 7 % 2.1 %

Use of sophisticatedcontrol systems

20 % 12 % 2.4 %

Recovering waste heatfor use in other func-tions

20 % 20 % 4.0 % Note that the gain is in terms of energy, not ofelectricity consumption, since electricity is con-verted to useful heat.

Improved cooling, dry-ing and filtering

10 % 5 % 0.5 % This does not include more frequent filter re-placement (see below).

Overall system design,including multi-pressuresystems

50 % 9 % 4.5 %

Reducing frictionalpressure losses (forexample by increasingpipe diameter)

50 % 3 % 1.5 %

Optimising certain enduse devices

5 % 40 % 2.0 %

System operation and maintenanceReducing air leaks 80 % 20 % 16.0 % Largest potential gainMore frequent filterreplacement

40 % 2 % 0.8 %

TOTAL9 32.9 %

Table legend: (1) % of CAS where this measure is applicable and cost effective(2) % reduction in annual energy consumption(3) Potential contribution = Applicability * Reduction

The study team thus concludes that the economically and technically feasibleenergy savings amount to 32.9 %. This gain could be achieved over a 15 yearperiod, since the large majority of major system components are replaced withinthis time frame. The possible savings are of course higher in new systems de-signed from scratch, that in retrofits to existing systems.

9 Note the potential for savings, 32.9 %, is less than the sum of the savings for individual

measures. The total possible savings must be calculated as a product of efficiency gains.See Paragraph 5.1, Equation 5.4.



In summary, the most important energy savings measures appear to be:• reducing air leaks• better system design• use of speed controllers• recovery of waste heat, although its economic value is subject to practicality

and energy price considerations.

Figure 7 shows the share of these measures on the overall savings potential.

Major energy savings measures

42%

12%10%

10%

26%Reducing air leaks

Overall system design

Recovering waste heat

Adjustable spee drives

All other measures

Figure 7: Major energy savings measures

Compressed Air Systems 4. Organisational Aspectsin the European Union 55 of Energy Savings


4. Organisational Aspects of Energy Savings

It is clear that a large technical and economic potential exists for increasing en-ergy efficiency in compressed air systems. As in many other areas of energyefficiency, the adoption of energy savings measures for compressed air de-pends as much on resolving organisational questions as technical questions. In this chapter, we present preliminary conclusions of the study on the nature oforganisation barriers to CAS energy efficiency, and on one possible method ofovercoming this barrier, through outsourcing.

4.1 Organisational Barriers to Improving CAS EnergyEfficiency

There are multiple reasons that explain why business organisations do notadopt cost effective energy savings measures. Shortage of capital makes it difficult for companies to invest in more efficientsystems, despite profitable opportunities10. Limited available capital is reservedfor investments that have a clear link to strategic business objectives (expand-ing sales, etc.). As noted in the findings from the market characterisation task, most businessorganisations do not have analytical cost accounting tools for compressed aircosts. Thus, these costs are not specifically assigned to compressed air userswithin the organisation. This leads to the paradoxical situation, that while costreduction is generally a high priority for businesses in competitive environments,reducing compressed air costs is "nobody's problem". Specialisation of functions within medium and large companies leads to the dis-sociation between the technical managers who are aware of potential energysavings, and those in the purchase and finance departments responsible forinvestment decisions. In most businesses, compressed air production is a "house keeping" functionassigned to the maintenance department. The maintenance manager is judgedon the reliability of the production equipment for which he is responsible. Sec-ondarily, he may be judged on the cost of maintenance. On the other hand, themajor cost item of compressed air production is electricity consumption (75 % of

10 The term "profitable investment opportunity" describes an investment whose IRR (internal

rates of return, see footnote 6 on page 44) is higher than the opportunity cost of capital forthe investing company. In this document, the term "profitable" is used as shorthand for "prof-itable investment opportunity". While "profitable" is less precise, it is used in this non techni-cal text, since it is understandable for most readers.

4. Organisational Aspects Compressed Air Systemsof Energy Savings 56 in the European Union


overall compressed air costs). But this cost item is almost never considered aspart of the maintenance department budget. The conclusion of this analysis is that the key to overcoming organisational bar-riers to improving CAS energy efficiency lies in making the cost of producingcompressed air visible to all levels of management. The study will examine two radically different approaches to making com-pressed air costs visible:• outsourcing of the compressed air function;• analytical accounting methods.

4.2 Outsourcing of the Compressed Air Function

The production of compressed air11 is typical of functions that can be easilyisolated within a business organisation and outsourced12. As described in Para-graph 1.3.2, outsourcing of the compressed air function is growing rapidly. Companies that outsource compressed air production usually do so becausetheir system was in crisis: it either had become so unreliable that it affectedgeneral production capacity, or the equipment was so old that maintenance hadbecome very expensive or impossible. In either case, switching to a service provider was seen as having some of thefollowing advantages, as compared with an in house solution requiring invest-ment in new equipment:• improve reliability and quality of service, guaranteed through the contractual

obligations of the service provider. In most cases, the service provider is alarge specialised company, perceived as being capable of respecting itscontractual obligations;

• liberate capital for other more strategic investments;• liberate limited management capacity for other more strategic tasks;• control and make visible compressed air costs;• reduce compressed air costs.

11 Outsourcing is most often limited to the part of the compressed air system inside the com-

pressor house consisting of drive + compressor + cooling/drying/filtering equipment + airtank.

12 Outsourcing refers to the business practice by which an enterprise isolates an element of thebusiness from other activities, and contractualises it so as to have the function performed byanother enterprise specialised in this function. Outsourcing is typically used for very high skillfunctions (computer operations, telecommunications, financial planning, project manage-ment, etc.) or for very low skill functions (gardening, office cleaning, etc.).



The last two points are of most concern for the present study. Paradoxically, asexplained above (Paragraph 1.3.2.3), the majority of outsourcing contractscover maintenance costs, but not energy costs. In fact, the actual cost per cubicmeter of air is rarely measured. Thus, businesses using outsourcing usuallyachieve improved reliability and quality of service, but may pay more for com-pressed air, without even knowing it.

The study findings at this point seem to show that, while outsourcing in principleshould be a useful tool to improve energy efficiency, in fact, under current con-tractual practice, this objective is not always being met, and in some cases,outsourcing can even lead to higher energy consumption (see Paragraph1.3.2.3).

This finding leads to the conclusion that modifying current outsourcing practicesmight be an area for institutional action by the Commission.

4.3 Analytical Accounting Methods

As explained above, compressed air costs are usually considered as part ofoverhead costs, and are rarely broken down by user departments within com-panies. In fact, actual consumption is rarely measured, even at the output of thecompressor, much less at more detailed levels within the company. Accountingmethods could be developed which help managers become more conscious ofcompressed air costs. This would make it possible to motivate them to realisesavings.

Different levels of precision might be aimed for in an energy related measuring,accounting and reporting system. The basic parameters which determine thenature of an energy accounting and reporting system are the objectives, and therecipients of information.• What is the basic purpose of energy consumption accounting and reporting?

Is it primarily for cost control or cost reduction? Is it used for benchmarking?Is it a maintenance tool to warn of problems?

• Who are the recipients? Cost controllers, production managers, maintenancemanagers?

Once these parameters are determined, the technical parameters can be de-cided upon.• What is the level of detail? Company wide? Factory wide? Profit centre? Pro-

duction department, or shop level?• What frequency for reporting? Real time, or cumulative?• How are energy costs broken down? Does electricity appear separately? Is

energy consumption for production separated from administrative consump-tion? Is compressed air electricity consumption separated from other electric-ity consumption? Within compressed air consumption, is main drive con-

4. Organisational Aspects Compressed Air Systemsof Energy Savings 58 in the European Union


sumption separated from auxiliary consumption (air drying, compressorhouse heating and lighting, ventilation, etc.)?

• What kind of metering is done? Electricity consumption only? Operating timefor compressors? Compressed air flow? In multi-machine systems, are me-ters installed on each machine? Is the metering cumulative only, or does itproduce time based information?

Of course, generating greater detail in energy reporting has a cost, which mustbe justified by the objectives and the potential savings. Table 8 outlines threetypes of measuring systems.

Table 8: Types of measuring systems

Objective Metering ReportingCompany wide electricityconsumption cost control.

No special metering. Use ofexisting information fromelectricity (and other energy)bills.

Synthetic monthly summary of costs,broken down into 2 categories: pro-duction, administration.Reporting for senior management.

Detailed cost control andbenchmarking.

Installation of electricitymeters for major functions,including production of com-pressed air.

Detailed reporting of different typesof energy consumption, as com-pared with production levels.Comparison of unit energy costsbetween factories.

Shop or production levelcost accounting.Maintenance tool.

Electricity and air flow me-ters on each compressor.Air flow meters for eachshop in a factory.

Detailed cost accounting by produc-tion department.Maintenance reports, perhaps at ahigher frequency, permitting therapid identification of productionproblems (major leaks, decliningcompressor performance, etc.).Synthetic reports for senior man-agement. Detailed, frequent reportsfor production and/or maintenancemanagers.

Note that the Commission has funded several projects, under the "Monitoringand Target Setting" sub-programme, which lay the technical and organisationalbasis for energy accounting systems. Some typical projects, among others, are:• Pilot project for the development and demonstration of Energy Monitoring &

Target Setting in the Meat and Meat Product Industry (SAVE XVII/4.1031/92-033, Meat and Livestock Commission). Statistical energy savings and man-agement procedures for monitoring and target setting (M&T) that had beendeveloped for other high energy using industries was re-shaped to fit meatcompanies.

• ENERGY MANAGEMENT INTEGRATED IN A DAIRY INDUSTRY (THERMIE proj-ect IN./00097/91, INTERLAC – INTERCOOPERATIVE LAITIERE) tested a realtime telemetering system, with 47 measurement points in a dairy.



• A computerised guide to M&T for accountants (SAVE XVII/4.1031/93-047,Linden Consulting Partnership) The project developed a computerised know-ledge base for generic application in industry and commerce for financial di-rectors and company accountants to provide an interactive training and man-agement information system to enhance the acceptance of M&T systems byprofessional accountants.

While these projects lay the groundwork for general energy accounting sys-tems, work remains to be done to treat the specific problems of compressed airenergy accounting.

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union 61 5. Analysis of Impacts


5. Analysis of Impacts

The study analysed the impacts of:• technical energy savings measures to improve compressed air system en-

ergy efficiency;• EU Commission and Member state actions to encourage market transforma-

tion, so that these measures are implemented.Action for market transformation could be relevant considering that:• compressed air generation accounts for approximately 10 % of the total

electrical energy consumption of industry (Paragraph 1.2);• typically, over a ten year period, the total cost of compressed air includes

75 % energy, 20 % capital, and 5 % maintenance (Paragraph 6);• energy efficiency of compressed air systems is often relatively low; air leaks,

for instance, account for 10 to 20 % of the total air usage.

Various technical measures can produce significant improvements in energyefficiency, while reducing costs. The efficiency and cost of compressed air gen-eration is controlled by the efficiency of the compressors, but is strongly influ-enced by several factors including:• compressor configuration and location;• number of compressors used to meet the demand;• individual compressor and overall system control modes;• quality of the inlet air;• quality of the cooling service;• quality of maintenance. The main technical measures that can improve energy efficiency of compressedair systems in many installations have been discussed in Task 3, and are sum-marised in the Table 9.

Table 9: Energy savings measures

Energy savings measures

1. Improvement of drives: use of highefficiency motors

2. Improvement of drives (e. g. speedcontrol)

3. Upgrading of compressors

4. Use of sophisticated control systems

5. Recuperating waste heat for use inother functions

6. Improved cooling, drying and filtering

7. Overall system design, including multi-pressure systems

8. Reducing frictional pressure losses

9. Optimising certain end use devices

10. Reducing air leaks

11. More frequent filter replacement

Compressed Air Systems5. Analysis of Impacts 62 in the European Union


All the measures are cost-effective in some applications, even if they are char-acterised by different applicability and gains (see Table 6). A careful selectionof efficient components can help to save energy, but even greater efficiencyopportunities exist within the compressed air system design, implementationand maintenance. The entire set of measures, at their maximum application, defines the techno-economic potential of the project, as defined in Task 3. To make reasonablepredictions, however, different scenarios have been conceived in Task 6. In thefollowing, reference will be made to the "Awareness Raising Programme" (ARP)scenario, corresponding to 50 % of the potential energy savings. Our "analysis of impacts" will be focused on possible macroscopic modificationof the compressed air market (and of linked markets), subsequent to the intro-duction of new technologies and improved design and maintenance. Thisanalysis will cover the influence of these measures on the cost structure of mar-ket actors involved and on their market strategy. We have chosen to organise our analysis of impacts of market transformationby different actors:• users of CAS;• manufacturers of compressors and CAS equipment;• electric utilities;• engineering consultants and compressed air suppliers.

Together with the energy issues, economic and emission issues should be keptin mind. The former are considered in the paragraphs dedicated to CAS finalusers and electric utilities, while the latter are summarised in the paragraphdedicated to environmental impact.

In this chapter, some acronyms for energetic and economic parameters havebeen used. For the reader’s convenience, the following Table 10 is a briefsummary. Three different values are used for energy costs, since prices varyamong EU countries, even inside a given country.



Table 10: Some acronyms for energetic and economic parameters

The Global Energy Consumption (GEC) = 2200 TWh/year The Industry Energy Consumption (IEC) = 990 TWh/year The CAS Energy Consumption (CasEC) = 80 TWh/year13

The Industry Electricity Factor (IEF) = IEC / GEC = 45 % The Compressed air systems Factor (CasF) = CasEC / IEC = 10 % The Efficiency Gain Factor (EGF) The Market Penetration Factor (MPF)

The Energy Savings (ES) The CAS Energy Savings Ratio (CasESR) = ES / CasEC The Global Energy Savings Ratio (GESR) = ES / GEC The Energy Price (EP) = 0.04 – 0.06 – 0.08 €/kWh

(low, medium, high)

The Energy sales of electric utilities (Ee) The Fuel consumption (F)

The Number of Compressors (NC) The Number of Compressed air systems (NCas)

The Maintenance Costs (MC) The Operating Costs (OC) = CasEC * EP+MC The Investment Costs (IC) The Payback Time14 (PB) = ∆IC / (-∆OC)

5.1 CAS Final Users

As discussed in Chapter 1, system reliability and air quality are the key issuesfor compressed air users. Therefore, in order to make energy efficiency en-hancing measures acceptable for users, these measures should improve (or atleast not degrade) system reliability and air quality.

Opportunities for enhancing energy efficiency exist in all three basic areas ofcompressed air systems:

13 This figure does not correspond to the CasF cited below. See discussion after Equation 5.1

below.14 Note that we use simple payback time in this chapter’s calculations. Given the very short

payback times of measures studied (under 3 years) use of discounted payback would un-necessarily complicate the discussion, without substantially altering the results. (See foot-note 6 on payback time, Chapter 3.)



• supply (compressors, filters and dryers), where the air is compressed,treated and delivered to the system;

• transmission (pipes, fittings, valves and dedicated storage), to the point-of-use;

• demand, that is the actual use of compressed air. From the final users point of view, some modifications are expected in the coststructure:• Increase of capital investment costs, due to the adoption of high efficiency

plants, which will most likely be more expensive than currently used ones;• Operating cost variation:

− Decreased energy costs due to energy savings;− Increased maintenance costs, due to increased complexity of new plants,

and to modified maintenance practices (more frequent filter change, leakdetection, …).

Data reported in Chapter 3 defines two important parameters:• The Market Penetration Factor (MPFi), there called "applicability" (the sub-

script i is referred to the considered action);• The Efficiency Gain Factor (EGFi), there called "gain" (the gain in energy

costs is proportional to gain in efficiency).

Table 11: Market Penetration Factor and Efficiency Gain Factor

ActionMarket

PenetrationFactor (MPF)

EfficiencyGain

Factor (EGF)

Drives: high efficiency motors 25 % 2 %

Drives: Speed Control 25 % 15 %

Upgrading of compressor 30 % 7 %

Sophisticated control systems 20 % 12 %

Recovering waste heat 20 % 20 %

Cooling, drying and filtering 10 % 5 %

Overall system design 50 % 9 %

Reducing frictional pressure losses 50 % 3 %

Optimising end use devices 5 % 40 %

Reducing air leaks 80 % 20 %

More frequent filter replacement 40 % 2 %

Moreover, we can define:

� The Industry Electricity Factor (IEF), equal to about 45 %



The Industry Electricity Factor, defined as ratio between electricity consumed byindustry and total electricity consumption, can be estimated observing the elec-tricity fraction of total energy consumed by industry in recent years. In Figure 8,the industry electricity factor is reported for different countries in 1997. Asshown, the IEF is in the range from 40 to 50 percent for many countries, while itis remarkably higher than 50 % for Luxembourg15 (61.1 %) and Finland(54.9 %) and lower than 40 % for Denmark (30.9 %), Great Britain (35.6 %),Greece (36.9 %) and the US (35.8 %)16.

In order to estimate the energy savings achievable in compressed air systemsdirectly from each country electricity consumption, a fixed value of 45 % hasbeen assumed for the industry electricity factor. Obviously, energy savingsachievable in each country, besides the efficiency gain and market penetrationof technical measures, depend on the absolute value of the electricity con-sumption in industry. In Figure 9, these absolute values are reported for differ-ent countries, comparing the incidence of various sectors (industry, agriculture,household, commercial buildings). Countries characterised by high electricityconsumption are Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy, all consuming morethan 100 TWh/year of electricity in industry.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Austria

Belgium

Denmark

Finlan

d

France

German

y

Greece

Irelan

dIta

ly

Luxe

mbourg

Netherl

ands

Portug

al

United

Kingdo

mSpa

in

Sweden

EU 15 USJa

pan

Indu

stry

Ele

ctric

ity F

acto

r (%

)

Source: IEA, ENEL "Dati statistici sull'energia elettrica in Italia 1997"

Figure 8: Industry Electricity Factor for EU countries, US and Japan in 1996

15 The high percentage in Luxembourg may be due to the importance of electric steel produc-

tion in that country.16 The value for the US may be overestimated, due to different criteria for aggregating electric-

ity consumption: in the US, in fact, industry electricity consumption includes also agriculturalelectricity consumption.



0

100

200

300

400

500

Austria

Belgium

Denmark

Finlan

d

France

German

y

Greece

Irelan

dIta

ly

Luxe

mbourg

Netherl

ands

Portug

al

United

Kingdo

mSpa

in

Sweden

Elec

trici

ty c

onsu

mpt

ion

(TW

h) Commercial buildingsHouseholdAgricultureIndustry

Source: IEA, ENEL "Dati statistici sull'energia elettrica in Italia 1997"

Figure 9: Electricity Consumption for EU countries in 1996

The Compressed air systems Factor (CasF), defined as ratio between electricityconsumed by compressed air systems and total electricity consumption in in-dustry, is approximately equal to 10 %. As an example, the data collected forItaly reveal an annual electric energy consumption by compressed air systemsof about 15000 GWh which corresponds to about 11 % of the electric energyconsumption in industry (135000 GWh/year).

� The Compressed air system Factor (CasF), equal to about 10 %,as referred in Chapter 1 (Table 1)

� The Global Electricity Consumption (GEC): GEC = 2200 TWh/year(see Figure 9)

� The Compressed air systems Electricity Consumption (CasEC):

CasEC = IEF*CasF*GEC = 99 TWh/year (5.1)

Thus, according to the data available to the study, 99 TWh appears to be alikely figure for total CAS energy consumption in Europe. However, in the rest ofthis chapter (and in the rest of the study), we will use a somewhat lower value of80 TWh, in the interest of coherence with other studies, and so as to avoidoverestimating the savings potential.

CasEC = 80 TWh/year (5.1a)



Using this set of data, the energy savings subsequent to each of the proposedactions have been evaluated. In particular:

� Energy Savings:ESi = CasEC*EGFi*MPFi (5.2)

� CAS Energy Savings Ratio:CasESRi = ESi/CasEC (5.3)

The results of the calculations are listed in Table 12.

Table 12: Energy Savings and CAS Energy Savings Ratio for each proposedmeasure

Action

EnergySavings

(ES)[TWh/year]

CAS EnergySavings Ratio

(CasESR)[%]

Drives: high efficiency motors 0.40 0.5

Drives: Speed Control 3.00 3.8

Upgrading of compressor 1.68 2.1

Sophisticated control systems 1.92 2.4

Recovering waste heat 3.20 4.0

Cooling, drying and filtering 0.40 0.5

Overall system design 3.60 4.5

Reducing frictional pressure losses 1.20 1.5

Optimising end use devices 1.60 2.0

Reducing air leaks 12.80 16.0

More frequent filter replacement 0.64 0.8

To estimate energy savings deriving from the application of all the proposedactions, it should be considered that the efficiency gain of each measure actson the residual CAS energy consumption, after the previous measures havebeen undertaken. Therefore, the resultant energy savings will be:

� Energy Savings:

ES = GEC*IEF*CAF*(1-Πi(1-EGFi*MPFi)) (5.4)

� CAS Energy Savings Ratio:CasESR = ES/CasEC (5.5)



Table 13: Energy Savings and CAS Energy Savings Ratio for the actionsglobally considered

MarketPenetration

Factor (MPF)

EfficiencyGain Factor

(EGF)1-EGF*MPF

Action

[%]

Drives: high efficiency motors 25 2 99.5Drives: Speed Control 25 15 96.3Upgrading of compressor 30 7 97.9Sophisticated control systems 20 12 97.6Recovering waste heat 20 20 96.0Cooling, drying and filtering 10 5 99.5Overall system design 50 9 95.5Reducing frictional pressure losses 50 3 98.5Optimising end use devices 5 40 98.0Reducing air leaks 80 20 84.0More frequent filter replacement 40 2 99.2

ΠΠΠΠ i 67.1 %ES 26.3 TWh/year

CasESR 32.9 %

The evaluated energy savings will determine a decrease in energy costs EC.Indicating with EP the energy price for CAS users (in €/kWh), for the actionglobally considered, it will be:

∆EC = -EP*ES (5.6)

In the following table, three values of ∆EC are reported, according to the differ-ent hypothesis for price (low, medium, high) considered.17

Table 14: Reduction of energy costs for the actions globally considered

ES [TWh/year] 26.3

low EP -1052

∆∆∆∆EC [Million €/year] medium EP -1578

high EP -2104

17 The energy price varies widely among the European countries and in some cases also de-

pends on the time of the day or the season in which energy is required. Three values, 0.04,0.06 and 0.08 €/kWh, have been proposed here as a starting point for further calculations.Energy market globalisation could bring a levelling of prices, but paradoxically, also widerprice spreads between customers, as a result of individual companies negotiating their en-ergy prices. In addition, energy service providers often package electricity with other services(heat, refrigeration, …) making it difficult to determine real electricity prices.



These savings should be compared with the global energy costs for CAS users,which, in the medium price scenario, is:

EC = EP*CasEC = 4800 Million €/year (5.7)

The application of proposed measures will increase plant complexity and thefrequency of some maintenance tasks. This effect, especially during the firstyears, will produce a rise in maintenance costs. The ratio between maintenanceand energy costs in existing plants can be assumed to be equal to about 5-15 % (Paragraph 6.1.6) for typical CAS systems with low-medium power.Therefore, estimated maintenance costs are:

MC = 10 %*EC = 480 Million €/year (5.8)

Assuming that maintenance costs rise by about 20 %, their increase can beevaluated as:18

∆MC = 20 %*MC = +96 Million €/year (5.9)

The operating cost OC is therefore decreased by a quantity:

∆OC = ∆EC + ∆MC = 1482 Million €/year (5.10)

For each measure individually considered the decrease in energy costs ∆ECiwill be:

∆ECi = -EP*ESi (5.11)

Again, three values of ∆ECi are reported in the following table, according to thedifferent hypothesis for price considered. Finally, for each action, a decrease inoperating cost is evaluated, assuming the medium value of energy price andreducing each value by a factor ∆OC/∆EC = 0.94 calculated from Equation5.10.

Moreover, to put into practice proposed measures, users would have to in-crease capital investment in CAS. To evaluate the increment in investmentcosts, the payback time (PB) of each action has been estimated. From thesevalues, it is possible to estimate the global investment costs that European CASusers should undertake to implement energy savings measures.

18 We have used an estimate for the overall increase in maintenance costs. Of course, some of

the measures would have more impact on maintenance and system complexity than others.In particular "Reducing air leaks", "More frequent filter changes" or "Waste heat recovery"could be expected to increase maintenance costs. On the other hand, introduction of adjust-able speed drives or sophisticated control systems may decrease the frequency of mechani-cal failures.



Table 15: Reduction of operating costs for each proposed measure

∆∆∆∆EC [Million €/year]Action

EnergySavings

[TWh/year] low EP medium EP high EP

∆∆∆∆OC[Million€/year]

Drives: high efficiency motors 0.40 -16 -24 -32 -23

Drives: Speed Control 3.00 -120 -180 -240 -169

Upgrading of compressor 1.68 -67 -101 -134 -95

Sophisticated control systems 1.92 -77 -115 -154 -108

Recovering waste heat 3.20 -128 -192 -256 -180

Cooling, drying and filtering 0.40 -16 -24 -32 -23

Overall system design 3.60 -144 -216 -288 -203

Reducing frictional pressure losses 1.20 -48 -72 -96 -68

Optimising end use devices 1.60 -64 -96 -128 -90

Reducing air leaks 12.80 -512 -768 -1024 -721

More frequent filter replacement 0.64 -26 -38 -51 -36

Table 16: Increment of Investment costs for each proposed measure

∆∆∆∆OC[Million €/year]

Payback Time(PT) [months]

∆∆∆∆IC[Million €]

Drives: high efficiency motors -23 12 23

Drives: Speed Control -169 9 127

Upgrading of compressor -95 18 143

Sophisticated control systems -108 6 54

Recovering waste heat -180 6 90

Cooling, drying and filtering -23 6 12

Overall system design -203 18 305

Reducing frictional pressure losses -68 12 68

Optimising end use devices -90 18 135

Reducing air leaks -721 6 361

More frequent filter replacement -36 18 54

∆∆∆∆IC [Million €] 1370

Finally, from the variations of Energy, Maintenance and Investment costs, a"global" payback time can be evaluated, assuming the full implementation of allproposed measures. This is in some way representative of the applicability ofthe proposal, roughly defining its economic feasibility.



Table 17: Payback Time, full realisation of techno-economic potential

∆∆∆∆OC [Million €/year] -1482

∆∆∆∆IC [Million €] 1370

PB [Months] 11

As stated before, these numbers represent the techno-economic potential of theproject. In the moderate "ARP" scenario, these target values are cut in half,giving the final results detailed below. Obviously, the pay back time is un-changed.

Table 18: Payback Time, moderate ARP scenario

∆∆∆∆OC [Million €/year] -741

∆∆∆∆IC [Million €] 685

PB [Months] 11

5.2 Manufacturers of Compressors and CAS Equipment

It is clear that the adoption of technical measures to improve compressed airsystems efficiency has significant effects on manufacturers of compressors andCAS equipment. However, it is important to observe that many manufacturersare already investing heavily to fund research, engineering and development forenhancing their design, testing and manufacturing capabilities. Moreover, somemanufacturers, especially those producing compressors, have recently imple-mented processes for assessing customer requirements and future marketplacerequirements, in order to respond quickly to market requirements for both prod-ucts and services.

Manufacturers’ behaviour towards introduction of new technologies can bequantitatively evaluated from the data estimated for CAS users in the formerparagraph. CAS users’ increased investment costs may be seen as possibleincreased sales for manufacturers of compressors and CAS equipment.

Given the possibility of increased sales, manufacturers will be strongly moti-vated to modify their production in order to meet users’ demand. In any case,CAS manufacturers already invest significantly in research and development, tobe prepared to meet increasing demand for technologically advanced products.

Defining:

� The Number of Compressors in use in Europe:NC = 321000 (5.12)



� and the Number of Compressed Air Systems19:Ncas = 107000 (5.13)

On the basis of these estimates, the number of individual enterprise levelmeasures for each proposed technical measure can be estimated, assumingthat this number is associated with either NC or Ncas, and is directly propor-tional to the Market Penetration Factor, which identifies the applicability of eachaction.

Table 19: Number of company-level measures for each proposed energysavings measure

Number of actionsNC NCasAction

Market Pene-tration Factor

(MPF) 321000 107000

Drives: high efficiency motors 25 % 80250

Drives: Speed Control 25 % 26750

Upgrading of compressor 30 % 96300

Sophisticated control systems 20 % 21400

Recovering waste heat 20 % 21400

Cooling, drying and filtering 10 % 10700

Overall system design 50 % 53500

Reducing frictional pressure losses 50 % 53500

Optimising end use devices 5 % 5350

Reducing air leaks 80 % 85600

More frequent filter replacement 40 % 42800

Note that while some measures might be rapidly implemented (in particular leakdetection and optimal filter replacement) others measures would most likely bespread over the approximately 15 year life cycle of major system components.

Globally, the introduction of new technologies for enhancing energy efficiencywill produce a series of modifications on the market of compressors and CASequipment:

Modifications on production activity:• new components;• improvement of existing components; 19 This number can be evaluated by a ratio giving the mean number of compressors in use for

each CAS user. From data developed by the study regarding some of the most importantsectors for CAS users (producers of paper, cement, mineral water, glass, steel products,etc.), it can be estimated the average CAS has about 3 compressors. It is obviously an aver-age value, this ratio being dependent on the size of the enterprise and its main products.



• improvement of control systems;• improvement in CAS design;

Remarkable modifications of existing manufacturing practice:• increased employment opportunities;• increased production opportunities;• increased after-market.

For actions requiring new/upgraded component purchasing, an estimate of an-nual sales volume can be made, assuming a 15 year life cycle. The results arereported in the following table.

Table 20: Estimated annual sales of new / upgraded components

Item Annual sale

High efficiency motors 5350

Speed Controls 1783

Upgraded compressor 6420

Sophisticated control systems 1427

Waste heat recoverators 1427

Coolers, dryers, and filters 713

5.3 Electric Utilities

Energy savings in compressed air systems produce effects on electric utilities,which can be significant locally, but are of limited impact on the global electricitynetwork.

The energy savings deriving from the adoption of a single action (ESi) or of alltechnical measures (ES) have been already estimated. From the point of viewof the electricity producers, this will determine a decrement in energy sales.This can be quantified by the variation of energy sales:

∆Ee = ∆EC, (5.14)

equal to cost decrement for CAS users.



Table 21: Reduction of energy sales for electric utilities due to each of theproposed actions (medium price scenario)

ActionEnergy

Savings (ES)[TWh/year]

∆∆∆∆Ee[Million/year]

Drives: high efficiency motors 0.40 -24

Drives: Speed Control 3.00 -180

Upgrading of compressor 1.68 -101

Sophisticated control systems 1.92 -115

Recovering waste heat 3.20 -192

Cooling, drying and filtering 0.40 -24

Overall system design 3.60 -216

Reducing frictional pressure losses 1.20 -72

Optimising end use devices 1.60 -96

Reducing air leaks 12.80 -768

More frequent filter replacement 0.64 -38

Table 22: Reduction of energy sales for electric utilities due to the actionsglobally considered (medium price scenario)

ES [TWh/year] 26.3

∆∆∆∆Ee [Million €/year] -1578

Reduced electricity production will generate a saving in fuel consumption:20

∆F=ES/(η* LHV) (5.15)

where η is the net electric conversion efficiency and LHV is the low heatingvalue. Assuming a mean value for η equal to 39 % and considering methane asprimary fuel (LHV=50 MJ/kg), a fuel consumption reduction of about 4.9Mtons/year has been estimated. Hence, significant reductions of pollutant emis-sions are expected.

Table 23: Fuel savings

ES [TWh/year] 26.3

∆∆∆∆F [Mtons/year] 4.9

20 For η (efficiency in energy production) a mean value of 39 % has been assumed. For Hu

(Lower Heating Value), it has been assumed to burn methane (Hu = 50 MJ/kg).



It should be noted that, since influence of CAS on total energy consumption(GEC) is low (equal to CasEC/GEC = IEF*CAF = 4.5 %), the influence of theproposed actions on the cost structure of electric utilities would be even lower21.

What has been said can be quantified by the Global Energy Savings Ratio,which evaluates the ratio between energy savings and global energy consump-tion:• for each of the proposed measures

GESRi = ESi/GEC (5.16)• for the action globally considered

GESR = ES/GEC (5.17)

Table 24: Global Energy Savings Ratio for each proposed measure

ActionEnergy


Global EnergySavings Ratio

(GESR)

Drives: high efficiency motors 0.40 0.02 %

Drives: Speed Control 3.00 0.14 %

Upgrading of compressor 1.68 0.08 %

Sophisticated control systems 1.92 0.09 %

Recovering waste heat 3.20 0.15 %

Cooling. drying and filtering 0.40 0.02 %

Overall system design 3.60 0.16 %

Reducing frictional pressure losses 1.20 0.05 %

Optimising end use devices 1.60 0.07 %

Reducing air leaks 12.80 0.58 %

More frequent filter replacement 0.64 0.03 %

Table 25: Global Energy Savings Ratio for the action globally considered

ES [TWh/year] 26.3

GESR 1.2 %

In the moderate scenario, applying the usual one-half ratio, the following resultsare obtained:

21 We have not considered possible avoided investment costs for new electricity generation

facilities.



Table 26: Energy and Fuel Savings for the moderate scenario

ES [TWh/year] 13.15

∆∆∆∆Ee [Million €/year] -789

∆∆∆∆F [Mtons/year] -2.5

GESR 0.6 %

5.4 Engineering Consultants and Compressed AirSuppliers

The adoption of technical measures proposed in Chapter 3 requires the defini-tion of the strategies to be used, which are strictly related to the particular char-acteristics of the enterprise involved and its CAS services. According to resultsshown in Paragraph 1.3.1, which reveal a limited interest of managers to spendtheir time on improving energy efficiency, the required analysis is likely to bedelegated to external sources, including manufacturers, distributors and con-sultants. Hence, the adoption of saving actions could greatly stimulate the mar-ket for engineering expertise. However, all parties must be kept up-to-date witha specific training oriented towards the new energy savings technologies. Thedevelopment of the external sources market, therefore, should receive publicincentives, such as training through institutional structures.

Enterprises that produce high efficiency CAS can be expected to implementprocesses for assessing customer and future market requirements, in order torespond quickly to market requirements for both products and services. Theywill also require training for personnel employed in this task. A similar trend willinvolve all the activities of extraordinary maintenance of CAS equipment. Asmentioned above in Chapter 1, (market analysis), maintenance is often out-sourced to enterprises specialised in this function or to CAS producers.

In general, the adoption of new technologies for enhancing the energy efficiencywill produce the following modifications, which involve the market for both de-sign consultants and maintenance services:• increased design costs (new software, new design techniques, optimisation

tools, etc.);• enhanced knowledge required;• new opportunities;• training activities;• support for decision making.



As for compressed air service suppliers, their importance is variable betweendifferent European countries22. Data does not exist for a European wide quan-titative analysis of outsourcing. Nevertheless, interviews with the main out-source suppliers indicate that potential energy savings is one of their main sell-ing points. Interviews with companies that have chosen to outsource confirmthat controlling energy costs is one of the main decision criteria in favour ofoutsourcing. Increased user awareness of the potential for energy savings couldthus be expected to expand the market for compressed air outsourcing.

5.5 Environmental Impact

The adoption of the proposed technical measures, enhancing the energy effi-ciency of CAS, will produce a decrease in their environmental impact. In fact,the energy savings (ES) allow for reducing the fuel consumption and relatedpollutant emissions.

Given the context of recent international agreements (Kyoto protocol), the re-duction of CO2 emissions has become a public policy priority. CO2 productionfrom a power plant depends on the primary fuel employed and on the energyconversion efficiency. Assuming an average power plant efficiency ηg = 0.39,the following specific fuel consumption (s.f.c.) can be calculated:

s.f.c. = 220 grams / kWh for oil fired plantss.f.c. = 180 grams / kWh for natural gas fired plantss.f.c. = 370 grams / kWh for coal fired plants.

Considering an average composition for each fuel, the above reported figurescan be translated into CO2 emissions as follows:

720 grams CO2 / kWh for oil fired plants515 grams CO2 / kWh for natural gas fired plants890 grams CO2 / kWh for coal fired plants.

Given the large spread in the specific emission among fuels, the reduction ofCO2 emissions will vary between countries. Moreover, the fraction of electricityproduced in power plants without combustion (hydroelectric, nuclear, geother-mal, renewable sources) varies.

In Table 27, the electricity production in 1997 is reported for various countries,distinguishing different energy sources.

22 For instance, compressed air outsourcing is developing rapidly in France, but is rare in the

United Kingdom.



Table 27: Electricity production in 1997 for various countries

CountryHydro

[TWh]

Geother-mal

[TWh]

Nuclear

[TWh]

Fossilfuels[TWh]

Total

[TWh]

Fossilfuels[%]

World 2657.3 42.8 2392.7 9002.1 14094.9 63.9

Europe 789.7 4.8 1115.2 2443.4 4389.0 55.7EU 15 323.6 4.3 861.0 1224.3 2413.1 50.7Austria 37.3 – – 19.5 56.8 34.3Belgium 1.3 – 47.4 30.2 78.9 38.3Denmark 1.2 – – 40.5 41.7 97.1Finland 11.9 – 20.9 33.1 65.9 50.2France 68.1 – 395.5 42.2 505.7 8.3Germany 26.3 0.3 170.4 352.5 549.5 64.1Greece 4.1 – – 39.4 43.5 90.6Ireland 1.0 – – 19.2 20.2 95.0Italy 46.7 3.9 – 200.9 251.5 79.9Luxembourg 0.9 – – 0.3 1.3 23.1Netherlands 0.5 – 3.1 82.5 86.1 95.8Portugal 13.2 0.1 – 20.9 34.2 61.1United Kingdom 6.1 – 98.1 241.1 345.3 69.8Spain 36.1 – 55.3 92.4 183.9 50.2Sweden 68.8 – 70.2 9.7 148.7 6.5US 363.6 17.3 666.4 2761.2 3808.4 72.5

Source: ENERDATA, ENEL "Dati statistici sull’energia elettrica in Italia 1997"

It is evident that the reduction of CO2 emissions will be high in countries wherethe fraction of electricity produced from fossil fuel power plants is high (Greece,Italy, Denmark, etc.). Conversely, it can be fairly low in countries where electric-ity is mainly produced through hydro or nuclear sources (Sweden, France, Lux-embourg, etc.). Moreover, the possibilities for reducing CO2 emissions with en-ergy savings actions are strictly related to the mix of fossil fuels (coal, naturalgas, oil) used for the thermoelectric power generation, as well as to the meanenergy conversion efficiency. In the following table, the resulting specific CO2emissions are reported, with reference to the thermoelectric power generation(case 1) and to the total electricity production (case 2).



Table 28: Specific CO2 emissions

CO2 emissions related tothermoelectric

power generationtotal electricity

productionCountry

[grams/kWh]

World 957 611

Europe 1045 582EU 15 801 406Austria 541 186Belgium 755 289Denmark 957 928Finland 893 449France 700 58Germany 932 598Greece 952 862Ireland 677 643Italy 656 524Luxembourg – –Netherlands 652 624Portugal 695 425United Kingdom 745 520Spain 868 436Sweden 1051 69US 939 681

Source: ENERDATA, ENEL "Dati statistici sull’energia elettrica in Italia 1997"

It can be readily observed that in the European Union, the specific CO2 emis-sion is rather low, when compared to the European continent as a whole, orwhen compared to the whole world or the US. However, inside the Union thereare countries, like Denmark or Greece, where specific emissions are very high,and therefore any energy savings is highly appealing from the environmentalpoint of view.

In any case, the absolute values of the CO2 emissions avoided by the previ-ously described interventions are worth examining, in light of the variations be-tween countries. However, for an overall estimate, it appears significant toevaluate the reduction of CO2 emissions for each energy savings action and themean EU value for the specific CO2 emission referred to the total electricitygeneration. In Table 29, considering a specific CO2 emission of 406 grams/kWh, we show the decrease for the 11 measures.



Table 29: Energy savings and CO2 emission reduction for each of the pro-posed actions

ActionEnergy


CO2 emissionreduction

[Mtons/year]

Drives: high efficiency motors 0.40 0.16

Drives: Speed Control 3.00 1.22

Upgrading of compressor 1.68 0.68

Sophisticated control systems 1.92 0.78

Recovering waste heat 3.20 1.30

Cooling, drying, and filtering 0.40 0.16

Overall system design 3.60 1.46

Reducing frictional pressure losses 1.20 0.49

Optimising end use devices 1.60 0.65

Reducing air leaks 12.80 5.20

More frequent filter replacement 0.64 0.26

In the ARP moderate scenario, these data are reduced by one half and theenergy savings will be 13.5 TWh/year and a related emission saving of 5.3Mtons/year (Table 30).

Table 30: Energy savings and CO2 emission reduction in the moderate sce-nario

Energy Savings (ES) CO2 emission reduction

13.5 TWh/year 5.3 Mtons/year

Compressed Air Systems 6. Actions to Promote Energyin the European Union 81 Efficient Compressed Air Systems


6. Actions to Promote Energy Efficient CompressedAir Systems

The basic conclusions of the data collection tasks can be summarised in thefollowing manner: a large economic and technical potential exists for energysavings in compressed air systems, estimated at 32.9 % of their current elec-tricity consumption. While the technical measures needed are considered to bemore profitable than many other industrial investments, these measures are notcarried out by private enterprises, for reasons which are essentially organisa-tional:• Motor system electricity consumption is "invisible" to top management, since

it is most often a relatively small cost item for any company.• Electricity consumption in general, and motor system consumption in par-

ticular, is usually treated as a general overhead item in company analyticalaccounting schemes. Thus reducing this cost item is not the responsibility ofany particular manager.

• Measures to optimise the cost of equipment purchases, such as competitivebidding procedures, rarely take into account long term operating costs in-cluding electricity consumption. Thus these cost cutting practices can becounterproductive in terms of reducing life cycle costs for electricity. This isparticularly true since the optimal systems according to the electricity con-sumption criterion often require higher initial investment. Thus they are noteven proposed by suppliers in competitive bidding procedures.

• Responsibility for potential optimisation measures is largely diffused amongseveral management functions: Production, Maintenance, Purchasing, Fi-nance. It is difficult to get high level management agreement, cutting acrossdepartmental responsibilities, on a low priority item such as electricity con-sumption.

Since the barriers to the energy efficiency measures are essentially organisa-tional, the solutions must also be organisational. The objective must be to con-vince high level management to make the decisions necessary to carry out en-ergy efficiency programmes. Experience in national programmes shows that incompanies where this has been done, the results are often outstanding, andmanagement retrospectively is happy with the decision.

In Chapter 6.1, 14 different actions will be described, which will help to exploitthe existing savings potentials in CAS. These 14 actions where derived fromintensive discussions of the study group, taking into account the view from out-side people who are actively working in the compressed air business. To facili-tate the reading and understanding of the proposed actions, each action will beevaluated in a standardised table after a short description of each action. Thecriteria for the evaluation used are "cost", "implementation time" and the "cov-ered potential". The cost criteria gives an estimate of the expected cost whichwould be born by the Commission or national institutions. The criteria 'imple-mentation time' gives an indication of the time which is necessary to get the ac-

6. Actions to Promote Energy Compressed Air SystemsEfficient Compressed Air Systems 82 in the European Union


tion started and is important to set up a complete programme. Some actionscan be prepared in a short time and thus will permit quick initial results. Otheractions, which require intensive preparation and discussion, will influence theenergy consumption of CAS only in the medium or long term. The criteria 'cov-ered potential' gives an indication of the share of the total savings potentialwhich might be reached through each action. An action with very good perform-ance will have low cost, the implementation time will be short and the coveredpotential will be high. For a better understanding of the tables it should benoted, that the different actions are not independent in their results, thereforethe potential covered by a set of two actions may be even larger than the sumof the potentials of these two actions.

The proposed actions are grouped into two distinct programmes. The "Aware-ness Raising Programme" (ARP) is linked to the experience, that the bestresults can be achieved if all actors involved work together to achieve the feasi-ble reduction of energy consumption in CAS and the related reduction of CO2emissions. However, if action through consensus proves to be impossible, pub-lic authorities might consider resorting to other actions, such as an "Economicand Regulatory Programme" (ERP) containing mandatory actions. Theseprogrammes are described in Paragraph 6.2.

6.1 Actions

6.1.1 Advertising Campaign

Analysis of the energy savings potentials in Chapter 3 and the organisationalaspects of energy savings in Chapter 4 has revealed that large cost-effectivesavings potentials exist for most compressed air users, but the responsibility fordifferent aspects of the compressed air system is often spread over differentlevels of management. Often, key persons are not even aware of the large cost-effective savings potential which lies in their compressed air system. Thus pub-lic actions aimed at encouraging specific technical measures to exploit the sav-ings potential are pointless, since these actions are not even considered bymanagement.

Therefore, as a first step, management must be encouraged to examine andthink about their compressed air system. At this level, information about possi-ble saving options need not be too detailed: as a starting point, an advertisingcampaign could create an initial awareness of the savings potential in com-pressed air systems. The contents should inform that a savings potential existsrather than how and how much energy can be saved.

This campaign could be started by the Commission and include the co-operation of manufacturers, associations and national institutions. Informationshould be concise and easy to remember: "How is your compressor today?"The channels could be any medium which touches management: journals,meetings, fairs, internet. An additional channel could be the involvement of



trade organisations. Once this campaign has started and begins to take effect,more detailed information might have a better chance to reach the targetedaudience. The campaign should be simple, and should be limited to non techni-cal information. Therefore the cost for preparation should be low. In order toavoid unnecessarily high costs, we would recommend cheap media such as aWEB site, an email or fax campaign, or flyers and news flashes in newspapersand technical papers.

Costs low medium highImplementation Time short medium long

Covered Potential high medium low

6.1.2 Technology Demonstration

Pilot actions are aimed at only a small proportion of the target group. However,the results can be used to gain more insight into the handling of compressed airsystems and to orient more detailed research. Pilot actions are also used todemonstrate "theory" on energy savings in a practical way, comprehensible toother compressed air system users.

Various programmes already support demonstration actions for energy-efficientmeasures and technologies, often including actions targeted at efficient com-pressed air production and distribution. Examples are the Best Practise pro-grammes in the United Kingdom or the international Centre for the Analysis andDissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies (CADDET)23. The EU ismember of the CADDET team and thus initiatives for further projects might besupported within the framework of this programme.

Innovative concepts which might be supported include• gas turbine driven compressors;• new tube connections for reducing leakage and pressure losses;• new concepts for air drying;• gas expansion motor or gas expansion turbine driven compressors;• automatic leak detection systems.

The promotion potential of these concepts needs to be evaluated on a deepertechnical level. In general, demonstration projects should address market defi-ciencies and generate technical information aimed at new technologies. Resultsshould be disseminated to a broad public, e. g. through publications in journalsand newspapers, brochures and posters, and the internet. The costs and im-plementation efforts very much depend on the demonstration objective, but canbe considerable and time-consuming. However, demonstration links manufac-turers to end-users and gives them some feedback about end-users needs, andfurthermore, demonstration can push new, efficient technologies considerably.

23 http://www.caddet-ee.org/





6.1.3 Measuring Campaign

A general and major obstacle when introducing energy efficiency is that usersare often not willing or capable of relating general information or measures tothe specific situation in their own company. If they get a cheap and conciseoverview of their own situation, it is much easier for them to consider and adaptsavings measures. Thus, a pilot action to overcome this barrier would be ameasurement campaign to give compressed air system users a short descrip-tion of their savings potential.

The procedure for measurement, including the analysis of the energy and airconsumption in a company might be as follows. Compressed air system userscould apply for support for the measurement expense (e. g. 50 %). The applica-tions would be filed at a national institution24, which would arrange the neces-sary support. The institution would also be responsible for public relations anddissemination of results. In addition, the institution would collect statements ofinterest from metering institutions and distribute a list to compressed air systemusers. The support would be conditioned by an agreement to publicly report onthe results in public (anonymously or as an advertisement for the involved part-ners).

As a starting point, the measuring campaign could involve a few pre-selectedmember countries of the EU. Assuming that a good analysis for one companycosts about 5 000 Euro of which 50 % would be financed through support fromthe Commission, the investigation of 3 000 companies would cost 7.5 millionEuro to be financed by the EU. Of course, the actual cost of each individualsystem analysis depends on system size and complexity, and would in somecases cost less or more than 5 000 Euro.



6.1.4 Contests and Awards

The awarding of prizes is a way to honour the efforts of manufacturers, users orother involved organisations to improve the efficient applications of compressedair systems. The bigger and more far-reaching side effect of awards is the pub-

24 The EnR agencies of several European countries already administer similar programmes.



lic attention gained during the contest procedure, from press releases and fromthe use of the award name and logo for publicity campaigns.

Existing awards are targeted on both users and equipment manufacturers. TheUS ENERGY STAR awards can serve as an example for a successfully organ-ised contest where both manufactures and retailers are rewarded. The awardsshould "honour organisations that have made notable contributions to energyefficiency [...]. These awards acknowledge superior technical accomplishment,public education, implementation, and promotional efforts to realise and raiseconsumer awareness of the benefits of ENERGY STAR-labelled products thatresult in substantial energy and cost savings and a cleaner environment."25

The analysis of the savings potential in Chapter 3 has shown that the most im-portant benefits can be gained from improved system design rather than fromimproving the individual components. Thus, in contrast to existing awards likethe Energy Star award, a compressed air system award should not only includethe improvement of equipment but should be concentrated on the system inter-actions. For a suitable award, the study group has derived two possible ap-proaches:• Award for the best system design corresponding to the definition of a theo-

retical user's needs• Awarding the design of existing and implemented systems

Both approaches focus on proper system design, yet the contest realisation andthe target groups are quite different. The approaches are explained in moredetail below.

6.1.4.1 Award for System Design

Awards for energy or environmental efficient products often lack the possibilityto compare the different submitted examples. The comparison of different com-pressed air systems is equally difficult, as the systems can vary in size, equip-ment, required air quality etc. Setting up appropriate criteria for "efficiency"might thus prove difficult. A possible approach to overcome this problem mightuse "standardised" conditions of entry.

The call for tenders would consist of a fictitious example of a system with spe-cific requirements for the produced air: pressure, quality, quantity, load curves.Participants should deliver solutions which fulfil these needs with less energyconsumption. The assessment of solutions might also take into account envi-ronmental and economic aspects.

By linking the contest with the requirements of an existing company or a systemwhich needs to be replaced or newly built, the contest could serve as sort of a

25 Energy Star Award Rules and Instructions: Year 2000. More and continuously updated in-

formation under www.epa.gov/energystar/



public bidding process and the winning of the award might be linked with thepossibility to realise the proposed system.



6.1.4.2 Design Award for Installed Systems

A second (parallel) prize could award real system solutions which have been orare about to be implemented in companies. In this case, the criteria would beless explicit and the comparison of the filed applications less straightforward.

While, for the first approach, the certification of the function of the workabilityand chances for realisation must be carefully considered, in the second ap-proach, the impact on energy consumption of applications would be easy toprove. The applicants in the first case would be manufacturers (who in mostcases already co-operate with each other, e. g. compressor and dryer and filtermanufacturers) or possibly independent consulting engineers. In the secondapproach distributors or compressed air system users are the target group. Inboth cases the awards could be rewarded on national and EU level.

As in the first approach, the costs of such a contest would mainly consist ofpublic relations costs and the prizes for the contest. Again, the benefit ofawarding seems to be rather low as only projects are awarded which wouldhave been realised anyway. However, the major benefit lies in the broad dis-semination of the awarded examples.



It should be recognised, that the definition of an agreed set of decision criteriafor either award might be difficult to obtain and will therefore require some timefor preparation.

6.1.5 Dissemination of Information, Training, and Education

The examination of the organisational barriers has shown that responsibility fordifferent aspects of the compressed air system is often widely spread withinbusiness organisations. Thus, information tools and training courses need toaddress all company levels, from engineering and maintenance staff to man-agement, as well as multipliers like service providers and compressed air sys-tem distributors.



Raising awareness of energy savings through information and training tools is acommon and widespread measure. Several approaches to disseminate infor-mation to different target groups are used and should be further promoted. Theyinclude• Publications: Different kind of publications like leaflets brochures, hand-

books, journals and software are issued and distributed by manufacturers,trade associations, distributors, energy agencies, etc.

• Seminars and Training Courses: comprehensive seminars are carried outby manufacturers, trade associations and government agencies and addressmainly engineering and maintenance staff.

• Energy audits: Detailed energy analyses are provided by some manufactur-ers and service providers when new investments in the compressed air sys-tem are planned.

• Education: The complete design and implementation of efficient compressedair systems is currently only a side topic in the education of engineers andtechnicians.

Shortcomings of these information and training devices are not the accessibilitybut the focussing to the specific needs of the target groups. The interests, theinformation network and the reception may differ largely and differences in edu-cation, culture, sector membership, size of the company and/or the size of com-pressed air system should be carefully taken into account when spreading in-formation. For instance, material for maintenance staff should be available intheir mother language whereas information for managers might be usable inEnglish. Managers usually have access to the internet, e-mail and CD-ROM usewhereas the maintenance staff on the shop floor may not. Information must bespecific to an industry: compressed air needs are, for instance, very different inthe food sector and in glass production.

One way to obtain better dissemination of suitable information to relevant targetgroups could be by collecting and grouping all kinds of information in an "infor-mation pool" which is accessible to information agents as well as users. Mostinformation today is available in an electronic form, thus the Internet as a plat-form open to the general public might be a suitable tool to realise the pool.Practise examples as well as training material should be offered, and the mate-rial should be indexed according to its target groups.

The Commission's EuroDEEM database could serve as an information dissemi-nation tool. It would be possible to include in EuroDEEM modules on the per-formance and benchmarking of CAS, on good/best practices, on system designand component selection, etc. EuroDEEM could also serve as an entry point toa distributed information service, with pointers to information tools maintained,for instance, by European Energy Agencies or by manufacturers.

Similar considerations can be applied to training seminars and training material.Seminars represent significant effort and expense, both for those who offer andthose who attend the seminar. The participants can contribute to the seminar



with their experience and their own specific problems. Nevertheless, mostseminars provide theoretical knowledge. A link to the practise which is importantfor many people to absorb knowledge could be achieved if the seminars werecombined with on-site tours. Seminars could take place at the site of a com-pressed air system user, where more efficient compressed air system use couldbe demonstrated in practise (provided that there are enough persons in thefactory interested in attending the seminar, or the factory management is willingto open their doors to outsiders).

Last but not least, careful design and maintain of compressed air systemsshould be part of the basic education of technicians and engineers.

� Good quality information and training material is available. Fur-ther efforts should focus on favouring more widespread use,and better fit between information and targeted groups. Integra-tion of information tools with demonstration and pilot actionswould be advantageous.



6.1.6 Life Cycle Costing

Life cycle costing (LCC) methods are one of the basic tools which link purchas-ing decisions to their long term impact on energy consumption. LCC facilitates"Challenge" type programmes, in that it allows management to demonstrate thatenvironmentally optimal decisions are also economically optimal.

As noted earlier, many companies are not aware of costs related to the com-pressed air system. LCC is a concept that makes the cost of a product visibleover its whole lifetime. In a pure sense, LCC is the assessment of all costs thatare caused by the existence of a specific product. However, for compressed airsystems, three main cost factors should be considered:• Investment Costs: The purchase price of the components of the com-

pressed air system and the cost of their installation.• Maintenance Costs: They include replacements for wear, consumption of

oil, filters and other spare parts. They should also include the labour cost forthe maintenance staff. Maintenance costs are mostly difficult to assess asthey are usually not accounted for separately from the compressed air sys-tem.

• Energy Costs: Energy Costs are the sum of the yearly electricity costs forrunning the compressed air system over the whole lifetime. Energy costs in-clude the consumption of the compressor drive, and also associated servicessuch as cooling and ventilation. The energy costs can be calculated with thefollowing formula:



( )�=

��

��

�+∗∗∗∗

Lifetime

1t

tpa Prices in Rise1PriceEnergy Factor Load pa Hours OperatingEfficiency Motor

Power Motor

This formula is however a simplification, as it does not take into account factorssuch as the complex load profiles that have to be satisfied by the CAS. Whilethis simplification may influence the final result of the calculation, the resultsshould be sufficiently accurate in most cases.

For the calculation of the life cycle costs, a range of parameters can be varied:share of maintenance cost (on a basis of annual energy cost or on the basis ofinitial investment), motor efficiency, operating hours, energy price, rise in energyprice, lifetime, share of idle, part and full-load times. The list makes clear thatresults from LCC can only serve as an example for typical compressed air sys-tem applications, although they all will show the large importance of the energycosts (typically 75 % and more of the total costs). The two examples presentedbelow, for compressors of 15 and 160 kW, represent typical values for CAS (cf.Chapter 2). The assumptions for the calculations are included in the Figure 10.The investment costs are based on actual catalogue prices. It should be kept inmind, that catalogue prices normally represent an upper value for the purchaseprice.

Life Cycle Costing - Variation of PowerOperating hours: 4000 h Lifetime: 15a

- Investment costs: list price- Maintenance costs: 5 % of inv. costs pa.;

- Energy costs: motor eff. = 90 %; load factor = 1; el. price = 0.06 €/kWh; rise in prices = 0- Interest rate = 10%

Power: 15 kW

71%(31 k€)

8%(4 k€)

21%(9 k€)

Power: 160 kW

79%

6%(24 k€)

15%(64 k€)

(332 k€)

Investment Costs Maintenance Costs Energy Costs

Figure 10: LCC for two different sizes of compressors, indicating the signifi-cance of energy consumption

Depending on the average electricity price, the share of energy costs in the totallife cycle costs may vary considerably. However the calculations presented inFigure 11 show, that even for very low electricity prices the energy costs re-main the dominant factor of the life cycle costs.



Variation of the Electricity PricePower 15 kW; Operating hours 4000 h; Lifetime 15a

0%10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%70%

80%

90%

100%

(- 33 %)0.04 €/kWh

base case0.06 €/kWh

(+ 33 %)0.08 €/kWh

(+ 67 %)0.1 €/kWh

(+ 100 %)0.12 €/kWh

Electricity Price

Energy Costs Maintenance Costs Investment Costs

Figure 11: LCC of a compressor with variation of electricity prices

Compressed air system users could link the findings of LCC sample calcula-tions with their own specific investment decisions if they have a suitable com-puter software tool at hand to calculate the LCC with their specific parameters.This could be done with the help of a software tool which provides the calcula-tion scheme. The input would be plant specific parameters or – if the user is notaware of any specific details – pre-defined, typical parameters. The result willbe an individual LCC calculation in a graphical form.



6.1.7 Labelling and Certification

Appropriate, reliable product information is an essential component of efforts tohelp users make optimal choices in the design, purchase and operation of CAS.Product labelling on energy performance is a way to inform prospective buyersof the relative quality of competing products. Experience has shown that prod-uct information can have a powerful influence on consumer choice, and conse-quently on the type of products which manufacturers put on the market.

Labelling of CAS, like other labelling, poses some difficulties since individuallymarketed components are integrated into complex systems, operating under a



variety of specific environments. Their energy performance depends on correctsystem design, on proper installation, on interaction with other components andend use devices, and on correct maintenance. For labelling, two types of ap-proaches could be considered:• Energy labelling for individual system components• Energy performance labelling or certification for entire systems.

What is common to these approaches is the identification of adequate productinformation. Nevertheless, in practice, these two approaches would be very dif-ferent in nature. Therefore, they will be treated separately in the following para-graphs.

Furthermore, we consider comparative testing (as described below) to be a firststep towards labelling, that can be implemented alone with positive and perti-nent results.

6.1.7.1 Energy Labelling for Individual System Components

With respect to CAS, appropriate product information on system componentswould be an essential element of any programme which aims to transform themarket towards better energy (and economic) efficiency. This information wouldpermit users, system designers and installers to best build CAS which meetuser needs in the most efficient manner. In order to fulfil this role, product infor-mation must be:• detailed enough to permit informed choice in a variety of operating condi-

tions and with different system design constraints;• sufficiently accurate to permit the identification of the best product for a par-

ticular application;• cost effective, that is to say, the cost of producing product information

should be reasonable, in comparison with the economic consequences of thechoice;

• fair and verifiable, so as to assure a level playing field between competingmanufacturers. The test protocol should permit objective judgements, in thecase of disagreement between user and supplier over the performance andefficiency of the CAS system.

A product information system should consist of the following elements:• a definition of the scope of a particular product description;• a definition of the pertinent information which must be given to users;• a test protocol, which if applied correctly to a given product, develops the

necessary information;• the presentation mode for the information. This often takes the form of a label

which is physically affixed to the product.



Furthermore, the cost effectiveness of labelling must be taken into account inestablishing priorities for future public action. As explained in Chapter 3, over ¾of the potential energy savings in CAS would come from proper system designand optimal maintenance procedures. Replacing systems components withfunctionally identical products with better performance accounts for ¼ of thepotential savings.



The study team investigated an approach to product information, which wouldstart by gaining experience with comparative testing, as described in the fol-lowing paragraphs. Such a voluntary testing programme could contribute to elu-cidating, and perhaps resolving, the technical problems associated with the me-dium term objective of providing appropriate product information.

The following paragraphs describe a voluntary testing programme, as a possi-ble option to meet the challenge of creating a useful and workable product in-formation system for individual CAS components.

6.1.7.1.1 Comparative Testing

The study team investigated the possibility of inciting test laboratories to per-form comparative testing of CAS components.

Under this approach, laboratories, in co-operation with the most importantstakeholders (users, manufacturers, system designers) would identify thoseareas where:• comparative testing could be most useful, since user demand for information

already exists, or can be expected to develop rapidly;• technical problems could be resolved in a satisfactory manner;• the cost of obtaining and publishing product information would be reason-

able.

Such a testing programme might be carried out through a co-operative effortamong member states. National institutions (for instance, the members of theEnR network) could divide up the effort, with each country taking on the respon-sibility for a subset of an agreed upon list of components.

In order for such a comparative testing programme to be useful, several difficul-ties would have to be overcome.• Who pays? In the medium term, such product testing might become a self

supporting activity. As users become more aware of energy savings in CAS,they might be willing to pay for the relevant information (for instance throughtrade associations). At the same time, manufacturers might be willing to payto have their products tested, so that they appear in those test result publica-tions which will have demonstrated their usefulness to users. Nevertheless,



in the short term, it would be essential that public authorities (the Commis-sion and member states) "prime the pump" by financing test programmes.

• Possible high cost. The cost for carrying out reliable and fair tests would bevery variable for different types of equipment. For certain pieces of equip-ment (for example large compressors) purchase, transportation and installa-tion can be very costly. For a machine that might be produced in limited se-ries, or even custom built, the cost of testing could not be spread over manymachines, and might be a prohibitively high proportion of the value of themachine. Laboratory testing would be best fitted for small components pro-duced in large series. For large, limited volume items, perhaps testing couldbe done at the factory, in co-operation with a laboratory, or with buyers.

• Test conditions. As described above, to be useful, tests would have tosimulate actual operating conditions. For certain types of equipment, a verylarge variety of operating conditions would have to be simulated, perhapsthrough the use of standardised test cycles (similar to the city/highway proto-cols for cars).

• Expertise. Today, few laboratories are capable of performing comparativetests on CAS components. To establish laboratories of this nature and famil-iarise them with the testing procedure required could be a long and expen-sive process.

6.1.7.1.2 Labelling of Individual System Components

Developing adequate product information systems for CAS components neces-sitates defining useful categories of products, and the scope of product informa-tion, so as to permit users to compare competing products, and to find appro-priate responses to the questions raised in creating energy efficient systems.

The pertinent data for the comparison of the energy consumption is the "specificconsumption", expressed in kWh per m3. ISO reference conditions specifymeasurement at 20°C and 0 %RH (relative humidity).

Meeting variable needs for compressed airA large portion of CAS must meet varying needs for air. Characteri-sation of a variable load is of course much more difficult than for aconstant load. The test process for machines and control systemsdesigned for variable loads necessitates the definition of a limitednumber of test protocols, which should be representative of a major-ity of real systems. The method is similar to the definition of highwayand city driving modes for the testing of automobile fuel consumption.Recent research has made progress in the definition of standardvariable load profiles, that could be used in testing26.

26 Grant, A.; "Changing attitudes in compressed air usage through developments in variable

speed drives"; in Compressors and their Systems, IMechE Conference Transactions; Pro-fessional Engineering Publishing Ltd; London; 1999.



6.1.7.1.3 From Comparative Testing to Labelling

A pragmatic, "bottom up", approach to product labelling might be to initiate theabove described comparative testing programme, and to use the experiencegained to define elements of voluntary or mandatory product labelling.

The voluntary product testing phase would allow testing laboratories to try outdifferent test protocols, and to evaluate the usefulness of their results forequipment users. Users and manufacturers would have the opportunity to sug-gest elements for the definition of test protocols. In this way, over time, a con-sensus might develop between laboratories, users and manufacturers on theusefulness of a particular test protocol and the resulting production information.

Once this consensus is achieved, test protocols might become ISO standards,and corresponding labels could be adopted by the EU as voluntary or manda-tory product information.

� The study team has concluded that a "bottom up" approach isthe most promising option for developing product information forCAS components. In a preliminary phase, the Commission andmember states could encourage and finance comparative test-ing. Experience gained could lead to a consensus on pertinenttest protocols and labels.

6.1.7.1.4 Short Term Opportunities for Labelling

The study group identified two areas where product labelling could be imple-mented in the short term at a reasonable cost, and where it might prove useful:• Labelling similar to current European labelling programmes for consumer

goods, with a simple A to G quality scale, might be applicable to small com-pressors (under 10 kW) which are sold as stand alone tools. The study didnot further investigate this possibility, because these machines are outside ofthe scope of the study (focused on medium size, 10 to 300 kW machines),but also because these machines usually operate a small number of hoursper year, and the total energy savings potential appears to be small.

• For compressors sold with motors covered by existing European motor label-ling agreements, the efficiency class of the motor should appear on the com-pressor nameplate and in catalogue information. In addition, efficiency at fullload and at three-quarter load could be quoted in the catalogue. This couldcreate an "Intel inside" effect ("eff 1 motor inside").

6.1.7.2 Labelling for a Programme of Rational Use of Energy

Performance or quality labelling of entire systems is a different (although com-plementary) approach to pertinent product information for CAS.



In the quality approach, a label might, for instance, certify that the system hadbeen designed in accordance with good engineering practices, which takes intoaccount long term energy consumption. Some elements of LCC could be inte-grated into the requirements for a quality label. In order to cover system opera-tion, which accounts for over half of the potential for energy savings, the labelwould have to be renewed periodically. This approach is in some respectssimilar to an ISO 9000 or ISO 14000 approach. In fact, possible synergy be-tween ISO, EMAS and a future European compressed air system quality labelshould be considered. Much work has already been done to define the "bestpractices" which should be respected in the design and operation of CAS.

The performance approach might use "benchmarking" techniques, in which theenergy consumption (or overall cost, including initial cost and operating costs)of a system would be compared with that of similar systems. This would ofcourse necessitate some categorisation of systems (including such criteria asair quality and nature of variable loads). Since the benchmarking of servicefunctions in industry is becoming increasingly common, senior managementmight be easily convinced of the utility of this approach for CAS. One of themain obstacles to this approach would be to convince users to put into opera-tion the necessary equipment to measure air flow. A weakness of this approachis that it would focus attention on the production of compressed air. It would bedifficult to treat downstream issues, such as the distribution network, overallsystem design, or leak detection.

The motivation for users to request labelling or certification might come fromtwo sources:• increased awareness of the money savings potential from improved CAS

design and operation;• government incentives or pressure, through European and national energy or

Green House Gas programmes.

A European wide CAS challenge could include the certification or labelling ofentire systems. Achieving and effective, impartial and workable system would ofcourse necessitate extensive discussion with manufacturers and users.



6.1.8 Voluntary Agreements

Voluntary (or negotiated) agreements (VA) have gained growing popularity inthe 90s27. The action is based on co-operation between public authorities and 27 P. Bertholdi; Energy efficient equipment within SAVE: Activities, strategies, success and

barriers; in: E.V.A. – the Austrian Energy Agency; Proceedings of the SAVE Conference ForAn Energy Efficient Millennium, 8-10 Nov. 1999, Graz



industry representatives. The advantages are: manufacturers are more willing toreach efficiency targets, as they have the freedom to decide how to reach thetarget. Governmental authorities are favourable to VA because they are easierand faster to implement than regulatory approaches.

The US Department of Energy's Motor Challenge Programme is an industry/government partnership designed to improve the energy efficiency of motor-driven systems. In addition, in 1997 the DoE initiated the Compressed AirChallenge, a voluntary collaboration of large compressed air system users,manufacturers, distributors, associations and public institutions to support en-ergy-efficient compressed air systems. Both initiatives have shown the useful-ness of providing public recognition for private enterprise engagement in actionswhich favour the environment.

In Europe, the Commission is currently setting up the GreenLight Programme, avoluntary programme with private and public organisations to accelerate thepenetration of efficient lighting28. The criteria to become a partner in the Green-Light Programme are addressed to users of lighting systems.

For the adoption of a European compressed air system Challenge Programme,two approaches might be possible:

• A voluntary agreement with manufacturers and their associations• A voluntary programme targeted on compressed air system users

Both approaches are described in the following paragraphs.

6.1.8.1 A Voluntary Agreement with Manufacturers and theirAssociations

A voluntary agreement between the European Commission and manufacturersof compressed air systems equipment would aim to influence the supply side ofthe market by setting ambitious efficiency standards, accelerating technologicaldevelopment and phasing out low-efficiency products. Major efforts would benecessary to negotiate such agreements:• The VA is only reasonable if the participating manufacturers account for a

significant market share. For improvements of the whole compressed airsystems, compressor as well as other equipment (filters, dryers, etc.) manu-facturers need to be included. The integration of manufacturers of end-usedevices with considerable compressed air consumption (e. g. wrapping ma-chines, bottling machines, pneumatic transport equipment, weaving looms) isof special importance in order to include optimisation air consumption in theVA.

• A consensual target for energy-efficient production, distribution and con-sumption of compressed air must be developed. The target should provide

28 http://www.eu-greenlight.org



notable improvements in a given period of time which must lie well above apre-defined "business as usual" scenario.

• Procedures to monitor the progress must be defined.• An agreement should be reached on action to take in case of non-

compliance.

The negotiated target could be linked to an energy/environment "charter", towhich companies could adhere. This type of challenge programme can easilyintegrate and be coupled with the entire range of measures available in Euro-pean or National energy efficiency programmes and the ones already describedlike certification of compressed air systems, information exchange and dissemi-nation, call for tenders for awards, demonstration and pilot actions.

Voluntary agreements, which necessitate intensive negotiation, have high im-plementation efforts. On the other hand, a successful agreement includes im-portant market players, thus the benefit can be considerable. A starting condi-tion of the US compressed air challenge programme was to gather a $ 300 000budget in the first year by including sponsors with a minimum contribution of$ 30 000 each.29 The money was spent for co-ordination, development of in-formation and training material, an advertising campaign and press work.



6.1.8.2 A Voluntary Programme for Compressed Air System Users

The GreenLight programme of the European Commission interprets the volun-tary agreement instrument in a different way from most of existing programmes:it addresses the demand rather than the supply side, that is the users ratherthan manufacturers of efficient products. Applying this process to compressedair systems, that is involving companies which use compressed air, would fosterthe systems approach rather than the improvement of stand-alone equipment(as in the VA concept described in the preceding paragraph).

The Commission would have to define a user charter, containing targets andprocedures for improvement in the production, distribution and consumption ofcompressed air within a company. Compressed air system users would becomepartners in the programme by announcing their willingness to fulfil the adoptedtargets. In exchange, the partners would profit from accompanying actions (in-formation campaigns, etc.)30. 29 A.T. McKane, J.P. Ghislain, K. Meadows; Compressed Air Challenge: Market Change from

the Inside Out; in: ACEEE; Proceedings of the 1999 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Effi-ciency in Industry, Washington 1999

30 A pilot action of this type, addressing motor systems in general (fans, pumps, compressors)was submitted for consideration by the Commission under the SAVE II programme. The pro-posal was submitted by a consortium of EnR agencies and other partners.



Again, this approach could and should be linked with several other measures, tocreate a consistent bundle of actions. However the target group is even moredifficult to approach and a broad application of the programme would be a veryambitious goal.



6.1.9 Development of Guidelines for Outsourcing

More and more companies are trying to focus their limited resources (capital,management time) on their core business. Therefore energy services like heat-ing, cooling, steam production and the delivery of compressed air or otherservices are outsourced from the company. Outsourcing is very often initiatedwhen old equipment must be replaced, because it has become too expensive(or impossible) to maintain, or because repeated breakdowns have caused lossof production.

Outsourcing permits companies to delegate a function to a specialised serviceprovider, under a contract which specifies quality of service, reliability and cost.However the possible energy savings in CAS are very often not addressed inoutsourcing contracts. Many contracts are written in such a way that neither thecontractor nor the customer have an interest in reducing energy consumption.This is the case, for instance, when electricity consumption is paid for by thecompany, rather than by the service provider. In fact, in many contracts, theservice is paid for as a function of the number of hours of operation of the com-pressor. Thus, the service provider does not benefit from increased efficiency ofthe compressor, or from leak reduction.

Public action could be useful to help potential users of outsourcing services tobetter contractualise the delivery of service:• install electricity and air flow meters;• pay for air delivered;• use some type of "ESCO" arrangement, so that the service provider is moti-

vated to engage in measures such as leak reduction, or system reconfigura-tion which reduce air consumption.

Such action could ensure that energy consumption and energy savings areconsidered in outsourcing contracts.

However it should be noted, that the contract for outsourcing of a CAS systemwill be in any case an individual contract, which has to take into account thespecific needs of the service provider and the customer and the external condi-tions such as space availability, location, possibility to contract with other cus-



tomers, integration of compressed air delivery into a broader energy servicespackage, etc.



6.1.10 Economic and Regulatory Actions

The preceding paragraphs have described a programme of actions which aimsto convince industry management to adopt profitable, technically feasible, en-ergy savings measures.

A complementary approach would be to use the economic, fiscal or regulatoryauthority of the EU and of member states to strongly incite, or even to impose,these same energy savings measures.

6.1.10.1 Taxes and Subsidies

Economic measures, by injecting money through subsidies or tax reductions, orby removing money through taxes, aim to modify the economic parameterswhich influence the decision making process.

Many European countries currently use this type of measure.• Subsidies, to carry out energy audits, or even to pay for part of energy sav-

ings investment costs. When the subsidies apply to investment costs, theyoften take the form of tax reductions (accelerated depreciation, etc.), or ofspecial low cost financial mechanisms.

• Taxes, on electricity, energy, or on carbon. In the context of the Kyoto Pro-tocol process, discussion of some form of eco-tax is continuing within the EU.

Note that the United Kingdom has recently instituted an interesting combinationof subsidies and eco-taxes. Under the British system, electricity is taxed. Butthe tax is refunded to firms which engage in energy savings investments or ac-tions.

Taxes

Fiscal policy is a broad policy question, with a scope much wider than CAS. Thestudy team wishes to limit its comments to a remark on the potential effect ofenergy related taxes on those energy savings measures identified in Chapter 3of this report.

� The study has identified a very large potential for measureswhich are highly profitable (3 year maximum pay back time) un-der current economic conditions (energy prices, taxes, etc.).



Taxes will add only marginal additional costs on the total energyexpenditures and will therefore modify the technical and eco-nomic potential for energy savings only slightly.

� A small change in energy prices would make investments thatare already highly profitable even more profitable. For the rea-sons described in Chapter 4, businesses are not seizing theseopportunities. Slightly increasing the profitability would probablynot have much impact on decision making.

Subsidies

The review of experience with subsidies performed by the study team indicatesthat subsidies should be placed as far upstream as possible and as a comple-ment to awareness raising programmes. The cost of upstream measures ismuch lower, and the impact appears to be larger. For instance a brief pre-diagnostic for a CAS costs approximately 2 000 Euro. Paying for half of this for10 % of the 320 000 medium size systems in Europe would thus cost about 30million Euro, or perhaps 6 million Euro per year if the effort was spread over 5years31. Experience has shown that this is an effective complement to a pro-gramme of actions which aims at raising management awareness of the sav-ings potential, and at interesting management in paying for more comprehen-sive diagnostics. It is of course important that a follow up of the audit be en-sured, to overcome possible internal barriers.

On the other hand, subsidising investments seems to have less impact. Most ofthe energy savings investments carried out with subsidies would have beenprofitable without the subsidy, and it seems likely that the existence of a subsidyis not the decisive element which convinces management to consider these in-vestments.

� If subsidies are to be considered, experience indicates that theyshould be placed as far upstream in the decision process aspossible (that is to say as close as possible to initial decision toconsider energy efficiency in the CAS), and should be closelylinked with awareness raising programmes.



Note that the "medium" estimation for the cost of economic measures is ap-proximate, due to the variable nature of possible measures. A programme ofsubsidies or tax rebates might be very expensive, or to the contrary low cost,

31 Note that if such a programme were targeted on those systems which consume the most

energy, the percentage of energy use would be much larger than 10 %.



depending on the breadth of the measure. Similarly, taxes can have a small orlarge impact, depending on their nature. In fact, from the point of view of publicauthorities, taxes can be revenue generating, and thus may have a negativecost32.

6.1.10.2 Regulations

Regulatory measures are used by governments to impose certain energy sav-ings technologies. This is done routinely in building regulations, for instance.This approach is being widely used in Europe for boilers. In France, a July 5,1977 decree instituted a broad system of mandatory energy inspections in in-dustry.

Thus, it would be technically possible to:• require licensing for the installation of new systems, with a procedure that

aimed at imposing a certain number of "good" or even "best" practices in thedesign and installation of CAS;

• mandate periodic inspection of existing systems, to insure optimal operation:for instance, that maintenance included leak detection and regular replace-ment of filters.

It is interesting to estimate what such a system would cost. We have taken as aworking hypothesis a 3 year inspection cycle. French experience with the de-cree of 1977 indicates that the cost of administering this type of inspectionwould be at least 2 000 Euro per system every 3 years (650 Euro/year). Thiswould include the cost of running the administration responsible for registeringinstallations, making sure that the inspections are carried out, and paying forsome kind of internal or external quality control scheme. For the over 320 000medium size CAS in Europe, this would then amount to 200 million Euro peryear, a very considerable sum33. This figure does not include the cost of the onsite inspections. But of course, the inspection costs are born by businesses,and in any case, to achieve energy savings, some kind of on site audit or in-spection is necessary.

While the cost of administering mandatory measures is high, it could be justifiedif they were the only way to obtain the potential savings identified in Chapter 3.But French experience seems to show, that on the contrary, this type of "com-mand and control" system is not very effective in achieving the goal of energysavings. In fact, businesses see the inspection as a cost item imposed by gov-ernments, rather than an opportunity to identify money saving operating cost

32 There is much debate among economists on the overall impact of energy taxes. Some argue

that they can have an overall positive effect, due to the so called "double dividend". This de-bate is outside the scope of this study.

33 The scope of this study is limited to CAS. Nevertheless, it would seem logical that if a man-datory inspection system was created, it would not be limited to CAS. A workable systemwould probably have a larger scope, for instance all motor driven systems, or all rotating ma-chines, or industrial energy use, ... In this case, the costs would of course be even higher.



reductions. Management tends to look for the lowest cost service provider whowill meet the strict minimum imposed by the regulations. These low cost inspec-tions were rarely sufficiently comprehensive to provide a basis for energy sav-ings investments. Thus, under some conditions, the overall effect of mandatoryinspections may even be negative, since businesses who have paid for one in-spection imposed by regulations, are unlikely to pay for an audit of the sameinstallation to identify energy savings measures. It is interesting to note that in1998, the French system was sharply reduced in scope.

A priori, it would appear difficult to integrate mandatory regulatory measuresinto a programme based largely on awareness building measures. Experienceshows that at the very least, administrative responsibility for awareness buildingand regulatory measures has to be assigned to separate agencies. It would ap-pear that consideration of mandatory regulations should be considered if othertypes of measures prove insufficient to achieve substantial energy savings.

� The study team has concluded that mandatory inspectionsand/licensing would be costly, and perhaps of limited effective-ness. In view of evidence collected, it would seem logical tomake a concerted effort to build a voluntary programme basedon awareness raising actions, before considering mandatoryregulatory measures.



6.1.11 Other Possible Actions

In the preceding chapters a range of measures have been described which aimat different target groups, savings potentials and system components. Yet, alarge range of other ideas or instruments exists (e. g. incentives, accountingand calculation tools, audits), which represent different forms of the describedconcepts or were considered not to be practical for the improvement of com-pressed air systems.

Co-operative procurement as an example, aims to bring together a group ofpurchasers which formulate their product requirements and producers which arewilling to compete to fulfil these demands. Procurement shows the producersthat a potential market exists for efficient products. It has been successfully ap-plied in some national initiatives. Procurement applied to the scope of com-pressed air systems would focus on the improvement of the system compo-nents rather on the system itself, and thus miss the major saving option. Thestudy group therefore concluded that co-operative procurement is not a usefulmeasure for improving compressed air systems and thus this possibility was notexamined in more detail.



6.2 Classification of Actions and Development of aConcerted Programme

The following tables summarise the impacts of the described actions, and theinvolved target groups.

In Chapter 3, a range of technical and organisational saving options has beenidentified which all could improve the overall performance of a compressed airsystem. For all saving options estimates of the applicability of the technicalmeasure and the potential for efficiency gains were conducted to derive themaximum potential contribution of each option (see Table 7).

The implementation of the described measures involves different target groupsand stakeholders:• Companies (users), which operate a compressed air system;• Distributors, who sell system components and provide the link between

manufacturers and users;• Manufacturers of compressors, other system components and compressed

air systems;• Compressor or CAS component manufacturers' associations;• Industry associations, for those sectors of activity which are major com-

pressed air users;• Other stakeholders: energy agencies, research institutes, other associations,

etc.

The groups differ in aim, means, sphere of action, influence, etc. but it is obvi-ous, that the user of CAS will be one of the key-actors that has to be ad-dressed (cf. Table 31).

Each CAS consists of a number of different components. The system can thusbe optimised by improvement of individual components or of the system as awhole. Each of the measures described in Chapter 6.1 may affect only parts ofthe CAS, all system components, or the overall performance ( = whole system).As the analysis of the savings potentials has shown that the largest potentialexists in the overall system optimisation, the basic actions should address thisissue.

Due to the nature of energy savings in CAS, the bulk of savings would resultfrom the decisions of several hundreds of thousands of users to implementprofitable energy savings investments and practices, (decisions which are notbeing made under current conditions in the market). Note that in this respect,estimating the prospective impact of measures is of a very different nature fromthe impact of other programmes (household appliances, motors) where decisionmaking is limited to a relatively small number of producers.



Table 31: Target groups of proposed actions

Target groups Usersand User

AssociationsDistributors Manu-

facturers

Manufacturersand Trade

AssociationsOthers

Advertising Campaign � �

Technology Demonstration � � � �

Measuring Campaign � � �

Award for System Design � � � �

Award for Installed Systems � � �

Information and Training Material � �

LCC Tool � �

Component Labelling � � � �

System Certification � �

Vol. Agreement for Manufacturers � � �

Voluntary User Programme � �

Outsourcing Guidelines � � �

Subsidies and Taxes �

Regulations � � �

� = The target group is involved in the implementation of the measure

Table 32: Affected components of proposed actions

Affected components Com-pressors Dryers Filters Networks End-use

DevicesWholeSystem

Advertising Campaign �

Technology Demonstration � � � � �

Measuring Campaign � �

Award for System Design �

Award for Installed Systems �

Information and Training Material � � � � � �

LCC Tool � � �

Component Labelling � � � � �

System Certification �

Vol. Agreement for Manufacturers � � � �

Voluntary User Programme �

Outsourcing Guidelines � � �

Subsidies and Taxes �

Regulations � � �

� = The measure includes the improvement of the component



In order to estimate the impact of the proposed EU and member state actions,these actions have been grouped into two programmes, of a different nature:• Awareness Raising Programme (ARP), which would include all of the in-

formation and decision aid measures described in Chapters 6.1.1 to 6.1.9.This programme would be somewhat similar in nature to the existing EUGreenLights programme.

• Economic and Regulatory Programme (ERP), which would include subsi-dies, taxes, and regulatory measures. This type of programme would requireEU directives, as well as changes in national law and fiscal policy.

The impact of these programmes would depend on the proportion of users whowould put into practice some energy savings measures, and for these users, theproportion of potential savings that they would actually realise.

For the awareness raising programme, experience with existing national pro-grammes (for instance ADEME regional pilot programmes or training activitiesof the German manufacturers association VDMA) shows that well designed in-formation campaigns can in fact reach a large proportion of industrial users ofmedium sized systems. We estimate that in the case of co-ordinated and com-plementary EU and national programmes, focused on CAS energy savings, thathigh level management in almost all industrial firms could be informed of thepotential for savings, and that 60 % of these firms could be motivated to imple-ment an energy savings programme. Experience shows that once a firm un-dertakes an energy savings programme, a large proportion of possible energysavings measures are in fact carried out. The study estimates this proportion at85 %.

Estimating the impact of an economic and regulatory programme is difficult,since it would depend on the legal basis of such a programme, on the nature ofthe administrative practices used to carry it out and on the amount spent onsubsidies or the level of new taxes. It is assumed that the ERP would be putinto practice in addition to the ARP, and would be linked with it in an optimalway. Under these circumstances, it could be expected that the percentage offirms acting might increase substantially (from 60 % to 85 %), and that the pro-portion of measures carried out would also increase slightly (from 85 % to90 %).

The techno-economic potential identified in Chapter 3 is 32.9 % of current CASelectricity consumption. To estimate the impact of the two action programmesproposed, this potential must be multiplied by the percentage of firms acting,and by the proportion of measures carried out by these firms. Table 33 resumesthese estimates.



Table 33: Estimate of gained energy savings by the two programmes

% offirmsacting

% ofmeasurescarried out

% oftechno-

economicpotentialgained

%energysavings

Awareness raising programme (ARP) 60 % 85 % 51 % 16.8 %

Economic and regulatory programme(ERP) combined with ARP 85 % 90 % 77 % 25.2 %

For this study, we have assumed that:• the ARP could stimulate the achievement of half of the techno-economic po-

tential, or 16.5 % of current CAS electricity consumption;• the ARP combined with the ERP would achieve 3/4 of the techno-economic

potential, or 25.2 % of current CAS electricity consumption.

Note that the study team does not believe that an ERP could be effective in theabsence of the ARP. Thus, we have not projected savings for the ERP in isola-tion.

In the view of the study team, these levels constitute very ambitious targets,which nevertheless could be achieved over a 15 year period by well designedand comprehensive programmes. Such programmes, to be successful, wouldhave to meet the following conditions:• optimal co-ordination between EU and member state action;• sufficient financial resources;• sufficient human resources;• high level political support, in order to favour the active participation of the

private sector;• strong commitment from business leaders and organisations.

For a better understanding of the linkages between the different actions and therelated costs, implementation time and the covered potential, the actions havebeen grouped into three different diagrams, showing the different sets ofevaluation criteria. Short tabular summaries have been presented after the de-scriptions of the possible actions.

Figure 12 shows the implementation time for the different actions and the sav-ings potential covered by these actions. Actions that can be implementedquickly, such as the development of an LCC Tool or the outsourcing guidelines,will cover only a small share of the total potential. Large saving effects can berealised on a medium-term with the measuring campaign, and information andtraining. Activities orientated to long-term improvements, e. g. the technologydemonstration and system certification will require a significant amount of time



to be implemented but may have a significant impact. The fiscal and regulatorymeasures however will need much time but will have smaller effects than manyother possible actions.

low

med

ium

high

short medium long

Implementation Time

Cov

ered

Pot

entia

l

MeasuringCampaign

Information andTraining

Vol. Agreementfor Manufacturers

SystemCertification

TechnologyDemonstration

Voluntary UserProgramme

LCC Tool

Regulations

Subsidies andTaxesAward for In-

stalled Systems

AdvertisingCampaign

Award forSystem Design

OutsourcingGuidelines

AR Programme

ER Programme

possible suppl. to ARP

ComponentLabelling

Figure 12: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (covered potential and im-plementation time)

If actions to improve CAS were adopted by the European Commission, it is alsoimportant to choose the measures which can be started with justifiable costs. Afirst idea of the cost-benefit-ratio can be obtained, if the savings potential for theproposed actions is compared to the associated cost. In Figure 13 these twocriteria are presented in one graph. It can be seen, that the cost-benefit-ratio ofall proposed actions are on a similar level. Actions with small savings potentialstend to have lower cost whereas actions with high savings potentials havehigher cost. However it should be noted, that the actions grouped into the ARPin general have a better cost-benefit-ratio than those in the ERP.



low

med

ium

high

low medium high

Costs

Cov

ered

Pot

entia

l

MeasuringCampaign



ComponentLabelling

SystemCertification



LCC Tool

Regulations

Subsidies andTaxesAward for In-

stalled Systems

AdvertisingCampaign



AR Programme

ER Programme


Figure 13: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (costs and covered poten-tial)

6.3 Proposition to the Commission on How to Act

The results of this study have shown, that significant energy savings potentialsexists in CAS throughout Europe. These potentials can be developed, if in-creased user awareness about the economic savings potentials can beachieved. Therefore action should be mainly user oriented but should not over-see the influence of other key actors and key factors. As the group of users ofCAS is a very inhomogeneous group of actors, a single isolated action may notbe very effective in achieving any improvement. Therefore, the study group hasdecided not to propose single actions but a program of actions which maximisesynergy between the individual actions. This approach would facilitate combin-ing short, medium and long term actions in a program that may run over a pe-riod of several years. Thus, awareness of the savings potential in CAS could bemaintained over the long period necessary (15 year replacement cycle for sys-tems) for actions to be effective.



The program should start with the three key actions, "advertising cam-paign", "information and training" and "measuring campaign" which webelieve are essential components of any action programme.

As the action program proceeds, it would be possible to present first results ofthe actions with short implementation time and low cost. This would help dem-onstrate the value of other actions. Figure 14 shows that the actions combinedin the ARP are based on each other and represent a mix of short and medium-term actions. However, if the ARP is not successful in the medium-term, ele-ments of the ERP could be implemented, but at higher overall cost.

low

med

ium

high

short medium long

Implementation Time

Cos

ts

MeasuringCampaign



SystemCertification



LCC Tool

Regulations

Award for In-stalled Systems

AdvertisingCampaign



AR Programme

ER Programme


ComponentLabelling

Subsidies andTaxes

Figure 14: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (Implementation time andcosts)

To aid in the understanding of the ARP, Figure 15 represents the programme inform of a building. The advertising campaign, information and training and theEuropean wide measuring campaign will act as the foundation for the actionprogramme. The walls of the building will be constructed on one side by theLCC tool and the guidelines for outsourcing and on the other side by the awardfor System design and installed systems. A large portion of the building will bebuilt by the voluntary user programme and the voluntary agreements for manu-facturers. To complete the building and to protect the achieved savings for thefuture, technical demonstration will be a necessary part of the building. In addi-



tion, it will prepare the building for further extensions (additional savings poten-tial) which can be exploited in the future, when additional space is required.

AdvertisingCampaign

Informationand Training

MeasuringCampaign


LCCTool


Award forInstalled System

VoluntaryUser

Programme

VoluntaryAgreement

for Manufactures

Technology Demonstration

Figure 15: Construction of the Awareness Raising Programme (ARP)

To make this program work, it is not sufficient to act only on community level butto have co-ordinated efforts between national and European actions. In addi-tion, all levels of management should be reached in the target group (seeTable 34). This is especially important for the key actions identified by the studygroup. Therefore the European Union should set up an European wide pro-gramme and encourage the national governments to co-operate on a nationallevel. The advertising campaign might be integrated in a much larger advertis-ing campaign addressing the rational use of energy or a least the energy sav-ings potentials in motor applications such as compressors (air, gas, refrigerationplant), fans and pumps.

The priority actions proposed in the ARP with respect to CAS would also gain inimpact if they were inserted into a transversal programme aimed at energysavings for all motor driven applications in industry. This would in some re-spects be similar to the insertion of the US DoE "Compressed Air Challenge"into its "Motor Challenge". A European "Motor Challenge" could serve as a focalpoint for actions with respect to compressed air, pumping, ventilation, and othermotor driven applications. It would allow scale economies and synergy betweenactions in these areas, since much of the awareness raising work is common toall these systems.



Table 34: Actions and action levels

Action to be performed by EU Nationallevel

Management levelto be addressed

Advertising Campaign � � Top ManagementTechnology Demonstration � � Upper ManagementMeasuring Campaign � � Upper and Middle ManagementAward for System Design � Top ManagementAward for Installed Systems � Top ManagementInformation and Training Material � � Upper and Middle ManagementLCC Tool � Upper ManagementComponent Labelling � Middle ManagementSystem Certification � Upper ManagementVol. Agreement for Manufacturers � Top and Upper ManagementVoluntary User Programme � Top and Middle ManagementOutsourcing Guidelines � Upper ManagementSubsidies and Taxes � � Top and Upper ManagementRegulations � � Upper and Middle Management

The dissemination of the results of this study will be a first step in communicat-ing the large economic savings potential in compressed air systems to the pub-lic. The members of the study group who prepared this study will be pleased tohelp the European Commission in implementing the proposed awareness rais-ing programme.

Compressed Air Systems 7. Evaluation of thein the European Union 113 Impact of Measures


7. Evaluation of the Impact of Measures

This task deals with the evaluation, in terms of energy consumption, of the im-pact of the programmes for action identified previously.

The model, named a stock model, has been described and developed inTask 2. It allows the calculation of the impact of the energy savings actions. Theenergy savings actions are the ones identified in Task 6. They are organised indifferent scenarios, which are described below. The scenarios are different fromthe point of view of energy: while they are based on the same stock of systemsthe energy policy differs from one scenario to another.

We indicate here the different hypothesis used by the model for the energy sce-narios and the results of the model.

7.1 The Energy Scenarios

An equivalent consumption is recalculated per compressed air system, basedon the values of consumption of Task 1. This consumption, per system, is spe-cific to each country. This value reflects the specificity of each country, in termsof installed power, operating hours, etc. Due to the technical progress in energyefficiency, the new and upgraded systems consume less energy than the oldsystems. This is taken into account through a specific gain applied only to thesesystems:• For the old systems, in the stock since 1999, it is assumed that there is no

improvement in energy consumption,• For the new systems entering the stock due to the growth in installed sys-

tems, it is assumed that energy consumption will be 5 % less than in the oldsystems,

• For the upgraded systems, which gradually replace old systems, it is alsoassumed that energy consumption will diminish by 5 %.

We are proposing three scenarios for energy consumption:• a scenario BAU (Business As Usual),• a scenario ARP (Awareness Raising Programme),• a scenario ERP (Economic and Regulatory Programme).

The three scenarios differ globally in energy consumption. No specific hypothe-sis were applied to more detailed technical parameters (installed power, hoursof operation, industrial maintenance practices, etc.). Rather, an overall reduc-tion factor was applied, which takes into account these changes.

In the BAU scenario, no energy policy is adopted, and no action is taken. Thisscenario continues the current trend of energy consumption. Only new and up-graded systems benefit from some progress in terms of energy efficiency. Wepropose to take an optimistic value, 5 % as the decrease of energy consump-

7. Evaluation of the Compressed Air SystemsImpact of Measures 114 in the European Union


tion for new and upgraded systems. This value integrates different elements:efficiency deteriorates with the age of the compressor; the upgrading of thesystems may imply a reduction of the leaks; the new technologies are more effi-cient; machines are better sized to correspond to needs, etc.

In the ARP scenario, we consider an effort on energy savings allowing reachinghalf of the maximum potential identified in Task 6, that is to say 16.5 % reduc-tion in consumption in the year 2015. In this scenario, voluntary actions focusedon awareness raising (in general the easier and least costly actions) are imple-mented over a 15 year period.

In the ERP scenario, we consider that economic, fiscal and regulatory actions(mandatory measures, generally more difficult and expensive to implement) areimplemented in parallel with the ARP actions during a 15 year period, in order toreach three quarters of the maximum potential identified in Task 6, that is to say24.7 % reduction in consumption at the end of this period.

For each scenario, we calculate the energy consumption, per year and percountry, for each type of system.

7.2 Future Energy Consumption of CAS

The results are presented in different graphs and tables, showing either the totalconsumption, either the change in consumption per country, according to thescenario.

Table 35: Total CAS electricity consumption in TWh, per country

France Germany Italy UnitedKingdom

Greece/Spain/Portugal Rest of EU Total

BAU1999 12 14 12 10 9 23 802005 12 14 13 10 10 23 812010 12 13 13 10 10 22 802015 11 13 13 10 10 22 79ARP1999 12 14 12 10 9 23 802005 11 13 12 9 9 22 772010 11 12 12 9 9 20 732015 10 12 11 8 8 19 69ERP + ARP1999 12 14 12 10 9 23 802005 11 13 12 9 9 21 742010 10 11 11 8 8 19 682015 9 10 10 7 7 16 61

In the BAU scenario, annual energy consumption only decreases by 1 TWh, to80 TWh, the 1996 value. The consumption first increases to 81 TWh, and thendecreases. Different countries evolve differently: total consumption over the pe-



riod studied decreases in France, Germany, United Kingdom and the rest of theEU countries but increases (due to the growth in stock) in Spain, Greece, Por-tugal and Italy.

CAS Electricity Consumption acc. to Scenario

50

60

70

80

90

1999 2005 2010 2015

Con

sum

ptio

n, T

Wh

BAUARPERP

Figure 16: CAS electricity consumption according to scenario

The stability in energy consumption, despite a 4 % increase of the stock, is dueto the replacement of old systems by new and more efficient systems. As thestock increase is limited to 4 countries (of which only one with a large stock), itcan be compensated by the current energy savings progress.

Note that energy consumption would rise if the stock were to increase signifi-cantly, due to some unforeseen changes.

Thus, reliance on current technological progress from industry, in the absenceof a targeted energy policy, will not allow a decrease in energy consumptionand the emission of greenhouses gases. It must be kept in mind that this sce-nario is based on an optimistic value of 5 % for current energy efficiency prog-ress. Without any policy the consumption of the new systems might not de-crease this much.

If the policies and actions proposed in the ARP scenario were adopted, con-sumption would decrease to 69 TWh in 2015. In the ERP scenario, consump-tion would decrease to 61 TWh in 2015. In the both cases, the total consump-tion for each of the EU countries would decrease at the end of the period. Forthe 4 countries with an increase in stock, energy consumption would increasefor the first few years, especially in the ARP scenario. In the ERP scenario, thisappears only in Italy, where the increase of the stock is larger.

7. Evaluation of the Compressed Air SystemsImpact of Measures 116 in the European Union


CAS Electricity Consumption by Country, BAU Scenario

5

10

15

20

25

1999 2005 2010 2015

Con

sum

ptio

n, T

Wh

France GermanyItaly United KingdomRest of EU Greece, Portugal, Spain

Figure 17: CAS electricity consumption by country, BAU scenario

CAS Electricity Consumption by Country, ARP Scenario

5

10

15

20

25

1999 2005 2010 2015

Con

sum

ptio

n, T

Wh


Figure 18: CAS electricity consumption by country, ARP scenario



CAS Electricity Consumption by Country, ERP Scenario

5

10

15

20

25

1999 2005 2010 2015

Con

sum

ptio

n, T

Wh


Figure 19: CAS electricity consumption by country, ERP scenario

Compressed Air Systemsin the European Union 119 Bibliography


Bibliography

ADEME; Prospective de la consommation d'électricité dans l'industrie à l'hori-zon 2010, Rapport d'enquête sur les moteurs; March 1994; CEREN

Afisac; 1998

BCAS, Installation Guide: Guide to the Selection & Installatino of CompressedAir Services, CompAir-Broomwade-Reavell, 1992

Bertholdi P.; Energy efficient equipment within SAVE: Activities, strategies, suc-cess and barriers; in: E.V.A. – the Austrian Energy Agency; Proceedings of theSAVE Conference For An Energy Efficient Millennium, 8-10 Nov. 1999, Graz

Bertholdi P., de Almeida A., Falkner H. (ed.); Energy Efficiency Improvements inElectric Motors and Drives; Springer; 2000

Centre Français de l'Electricité, La Variation Electronique de Vitesse: Guided'utilisation, Paris, 1997 – co-edited by ADEME, EDF and GIMELEC

Direction Générale des Technologies, de la Recherche et de l'Energie (Wallo-nie, Belgium), Le Réactif, N° 21, September 1999

DoE (Department of Energy, US); Energy Star Award Rules and Instructions:Year 2000

DoE (Department of Energy, US); Improving Compressed Air System Perform-ance: A Sourcebook for Industry; DoE; 1998

DoE (Department of Energy, US); United States Industrial Motor Systems Mar-ket Opportunities Assessment: Executive Summary; DoE; 1998

ETSU; Best practices Series;Compressing Air Costs: Generation;Compressing Air Costs: Leakage;Compressing Air Costs: Treatment;Compressed Air and Energy Use;Cost & Energy Savings Achieved by Improvements to a Compressed AirSystem;Compressed Air Costs Reduced Automatic Control;Energy and Cost Savings from Air Compressor Replacement;Refurbishment of a Compressed Air System;Compressed Air Savings through Leakage Reduction and the Use of HighEfficiency Air Nozzles;Compressed Air Leakage Reduction Through the use of Electronic Conden-sate Drain Traps;Compressing Air Costs;Energy Saving in the Filtration and Drying of Compressed Air;Heat Recovery from Air Compressors.

Compressed Air SystemsBibliography 120 in the European Union


IEA, ENEL "Dati statistici sull'energia elettrica in Italia";1997

Grant, A.; Changing attitudes in compressed air usage through developments invariable speed drives; in Compressors and their Systems, IMechE ConferenceTransactions; Professional Engineering Publishing Ltd; London; 1999.

McKane, A.T., Ghislain, J.P., Meadows, K.; Compressed Air Challenge: MarketChange from the Inside Out; in: ACEEE; Proceedings of the 1999 ACEEESummer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry, Washington 1999

McKane, A.T.; Using Collaboration to Achieve Industrial Market Change; Law-rence Berkeley Laboratory; Washington DC, US; 2000

OIT (Office of Industrial Technologies) United States; Industrial Electric MotorSystems Market Opportunities Assessment; Appendix B, December 1998

Pneurop; Air Treatment: Contaminations Purity Classes and MeasurementMethods; Pneurop/CAGI; 1997

Statistisches Bundesamt: Produktion im Produzierenden Gewerbe, Fachserie 4,Reihe 3.1, different years

Statistisches Bundesamt: "Außenhandel nach Waren und Ländern", Fachse-rie 7 Reihe 2, different years

Talbot, E.M.; Compressed Air Systems: A guidebook on Energy and Cost Sav-ings; Fairmont Press; 1993

http://www.caddet-ee.orghttp://www.epa.gov/energystarhttp://www.eu-greenlight.org

Compressed Air Systems APPENDIX 1:in the European Union 121 Market Characterisation: Qualitative Data


APPENDIX 1:Market Characterisation: Qualitative Data

Enterprises

Number of enterprises: 16 users3 service providers

Countries: France, Germany, Italy

Sectors of activity: Metal products, textile, glass, cement, paper, bever-ages, brewery, food processing, packaging, woodproducts, rubber products

Certification: ISO 9000 (6 enterprises), ISO 14000 (4), EMAS (1)

Uses of compressed air: Materials handling or transport 7Pistons, presses, other mech. movement 16Blowing, cleaning 15Drying 4Hand tools 7Process 7Other 1

Air quality: Drying (dew point not specified) 9Sterilisation 1

Relative importance of energy vectors

Relative importance 1 2 3 4Compressed air 3 6 2 2Hydraulics 1 2 6 2Mechanical systems 5 3 2 0Electric systems 9 3 0 0

Legend: each cell indicates the number of enter-prisesreporting the energy vector at the given level of im-portance.

Conclusion: vectors in order of importance =Electricity,Mechanical systems,Compressed air,Hydraulics

APPENDIX 1: Compressed Air SystemsMarket Characterisation: Qualitative Data 122 in the European Union


Relative importance of operating criteria

Relative importance 1 2 3Cost 4 3 6Quality 3 5 5Reliability 10 3

Legend: each cell indicates the number of enter-prises reporting the given importance to the corre-sponding criterion.

Conclusion: Reliability is clearly the first criterion,followed by Quality and Cost

Compressors

Number of compressors: 81

Avg. number ofcompressors per system: 4+

Types of compressors: Screw, centrifugal, piston, rotary vane

Air pressure levels (bar): 36, 6.2, 7, 7.5, 810, 12, 1530

Manufacturers: Atlas-Copco, Boge, CompAir, Crepelle, Demag,Ingersoll Rand, Kaeser, Mahle, Mattei, Nea, Nehrer,Neumann, Thomè C.

Range of age: 1 to 55 years, with 5 piston compressors over 25years old

Power range: 11 kW to 3600 kW



Detailed information for enterprisesC

ount

ry

Sector,activities Certification

CA

con

sum

p-tio

n

Nb

of m

achi

nes

Air qualityrequirement

Invest-ment

Operatingcost

Energycost

It Metalproducts

ISO 9001ISO 14001

620 Drying 110 000 000Lires

93 000 000Lires

It Textile 540

It Metalproducts

ISO 9000 8000 Dessication

It Glass ISO 9001ISO 14001

2400

It Cement production 6500 10 50 000Euros

It Paperproduction

ISO 9001ISO 14001

1800 Dessication,dehydration

100 000 Euros

It Beverage production 2000 Dessication

It Beverage production Dessication

Fr Food ind. ISO 9000

Fr Rubber 4

Fr Metals works 2

Fr Metals works 9

Ger Brewery Drying, filtering,sterilisation

Ger Packaging ISO 9000 300 Oil tap, refrigeration,drying

Ger Printing in process Refrigeration,drying

Ger Wood EMAS Drying

It = Italy, Fr = France, Ger = Germany



Uses for compressed airRelative

importance ofenergyvectors

Relative importanceof operating criteria

Cou

ntry Sector,

activities

Mat

eria

ls h

andl

ing

or tr

ansp

ort

Pist

ons,

pre

sses

,ot

her m

ech.

mov

e-m

ent

Blo

win

g, c

lean

ing

Dry

ing

Han

d to

ols

Proc

ess

Oth

er

Com

pres

sed

air

Hyd

raul

ics

Mec

hani

cal

syst

ems

Elec

tric

sys

tem

s

Cos

t

Qua

lity

Rel

abili

ty

It Metalproducts X X X 2 3 1 1 3 1 2

It Textile X X 2 4 3 1 1 3 2

It Metalproducts X X X X X 1 2 3 2 2 3 1

It Glass X X X X X 3 4 2 1 3 2 1

It Cementproduction X X X X X 4 3 1 2 3 2 1

It Paperproduction X X X X X 4 3 2 1 3 2 1

It Beverageproduction X X X 3 1 2 1 3 2

It Beverageproduction X X X 2 3 1 1 1 1

Fr Food ind. X X X X 2 1 3 2 1

Fr Rubber X X

Fr Metalsworks X X X X

Fr Metalsworks X X X X X

Ger Brewery X X X 2 3 2 1 1 1 1

Ger Packaging X X X 1 2 1 2 3 1

Ger Printing X X 2 3 1 2 3 1

Ger Wood X X 1 1 1 1 3 2 1




Detailed information for compressorsC

ount

ry

Sector,activities

Compressormanufacturer Type

Power

[kW]

Flow-rate

[m3/h]

Pres-sure[bar]

Age Control

It Metalproducts

Atlas-Copco Screw 34 290 7 20 VSD

It Textile Atlas Copco Vite 30 204 10 25Atlas Copco Vite 30 204 10 25Kaeser Vite 55 498 10 1

It Metal Atlas centrifugal 6000 7 25Construc-tion

Ingersoll centrifugal 2x5000 7 5

It Glasses Ingersoll Screw 3595 24000 7 10 VSDAtlas Copco piston 9 10

centrifugal 760 3400 30 17It Cement

productionAtlas Copco,Mattei

Screw,piston …

700 8000 7.5 6 VSD, ...

It Paper production Screw,piston, ...

177 1800 7.5 9 VSD, ...

It Beverageproduction

Atlas screw 90 817.2 8 9 Electroniccontrol

Mattei Rotating 44 420 7 12 Electroniccontrol





Atlas Copco screw 250 2.100 10 15

Atlas Copco screw 250 2.100 10 12Atlas Copco screw 250 2.100 10 10Atlas Copco screw 600 4.800 10 8Atlas Copco screw 600 4.800 10 7Ingersoll R. centrifugal 600 4.800 10 5Ingersoll R. centrifugal 700 6.000 10 4Ingersoll R. centrifugal 700 6.000 10 3Atlas Copco Piston 75 960 30 16Atlas Copco piston 75 960 30 15Neumann piston 200 1.550 30 10Neumann piston 200 1.550 30 8Thomè C. piston 450 5.600 30 5



Cou

ntry

Sector,activities

Compressormanufacturer Type

Power

[kW]

Flow-rate

[m3/h]

Pres-sure[bar]

Age Control


Thomè C. piston 450 5.600 30 4

Fr Food ind. Screw 7Fr Rubber 700? 6 + 13 5 ?Fr Metals

worksAtlasCopco 250 6.2 pressure

Crepelle 550 6.2 and flow rateFr Metals

worksDemag screw 6.2

Ger Brewery Nea piston 40 416 3 44 Manual oil freeNea piston 40 416 3 43 Manual oil freeNea piston 40 416 3 36 Manual oil freeNea piston 23 240 3 47 Manual oil freeNehrer piston 45 361 6 12 Manual oil freeNehrer piston 22 181 6 27 Manual oil freeNehrer piston 15 125 6 21 Manual oil freeNehrer piston 7.5 71 10 19 Manual oil freeNehrer piston 7.5 71 10 19 Manual oil freeNehrer piston 7.5 71 10 19 Manual oil free

Ger Packaging Kaeser screw 37.5 360 7 2Kaeser screw 37.5 360 7 2Demag screw 22 180 7 9Demag screw 75 720 7 12

Ger Printing Boge screw 45 397 8 18Boge screw 45 397 8 18Boge screw 55 416 8 18Boge piston 15 102 15 17Boge piston 11 70 15 21Mahle piston 15 12 7Mahle piston 1.5 18 10 12

Ger Wood CompAir Rotaryvane

7.5 72 7 12

CompAir Rotaryvane

7.5 72 7 12

CompAir Rotaryvane

7.5 72 7 12

CompAir Rotaryvane

18.5 185 7 12


Compressed Air Systems APPENDIX 2:in the European Union 127 Market Characterisation: Numeric Data


APPENDIX 2:Market Characterisation: Numeric Data

Data and hypothesis from Task 1

For 1999 Number ofair compressors Consumption Growth rate

%

Country Total 10-110 kW

110-300 kW

TotalTWh

10-110kW

110-300kW O

pera

ting

hour

sA

vera

gepo

wer

[kW

]

Life

time

year

s

year1-5

year5-10

> 10years St

ock

rene

wal

per y

ear (

%)

France 43765 28885 14880 12 9 3 78 0 0

Germany 62000 43400 18600 14 10.5 3.5 65 0 0

Greece + Spain +Portugal 35660 25685 9976 9 6.6 2.2 71 2 1

Italy 43800 30660 13140 12 9 3 78 2 1

UnitedKingdom 55000 46750 8250 10 7.5 2.5 52 0 0

Rest of the EU 81040 56015 25024 23 17 6 82 0 0

Total 321265 231395 89870 80 60 20

Average value 71 42 kW 132 kW 80 3500 71 15 0 6.70

In Greece = 1.5 % of the electricity European consumption, so the same ratio for consumption andnumbers of machines

In Spain = 8 %In Portugal = 1.6 %

Change in stock of compressors

Growth rate as indicated.

Lifetime of 15 years, so 6.7 % of new machines in the stock.

Old systems = the machines in the stock since 1999, with no improvement of energyconsumption

New systems = the machines entering the stock, due to the growth rate, with 5 %consumption less

Replaced systems = the machines replacing the old machines leaving the stock, with 5 %consumption less

APPENDIX 2: Compressed Air SystemsMarket Characterisation: Numeric Data 128 in the European Union


STO

CK Types of

machinesFrance Germany United

KingdomGreece,

Portugal,Spain

Italy Rest ofthe EU

EU total

y 1-5 0 0 0 0.02 0.02 0y 5-10 0 0 0 0.01 0.01 0

Growthrate

y 10-15 0 0 0 0 0 0Replacement rate 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07

Year Number1999 All 43765 62000 55000 35660 43800 81040 321265

2000 All 43765 62000 55000 36374 44676 81040 322854New systems 0 0 0 713 876 0 1589Old systems 40847 57867 51333 33283 40880 75637 299847Upgraded systems 2918 4133 3667 2377 2920 5403 21418








Compressed Air Systems APPENDIX 2:in the European Union 129 Market Characterisation: Numeric Data


STO

CK Types of

machinesFrance Germany United

KingdomGreece,

Portugal,Spain

Italy Rest ofthe EU

EU total









Compressed Air Systems APPENDIX 3: ADEME Data Collectionin the European Union 131 Guide for Compressed Air Outsourcing


APPENDIX 3:ADEME Data Collection Guide for Compressed AirOutsourcing

GESTION de l’AIR COMPRIME DANS L’INDUSTRIE

Questionnaire ENTREPRISES

sous la direction de Bruno CHRETIENavril 1999

VOS COORDONNEES

nom société: groupe: filiale:adresse:

tel / fax / e-mail:contact(s): fonction(s):

effectif:activité principale:volume de production:clients:

centre technique d’affiliation:certification: ISO 9000 ISO 14 000 EMAS

APPENDIX 3: ADEME Data Collection Compressed Air SystemsGuide for Compressed Air Outsourcing 132 in the European Union


L’AIR COMPRIME DANS VOTRE ENTREPRISE

Q I-1 Place de l’air comprimé dans votre entreprise

mouvement, transportactionnement de machines, vérins,presses soufflage, dépoussiérage séchage (précisez) petite utilités (visseuses, soufflettes…) process ou autre (précisez)

- quelle utilisation faites-vous del’air comprimé ?

- donnez la place relative de l’aircomprimé par rapport aux autresénergies utilisées

hydraulique […......] % mécanique […......] % électricité […......] % air comprimé […......] %

froid chaleur vapeur gaz (azote, oxygène…) autre (précisez)

- quels autres fluides énergétiquesutilisez-vous et pour quelles appli-cations ?

- si votre entreprise est certifiée, laprocédure de certification a-t-ellepointé la nécessité / possibilitéd’améliorer votre poste air compri-mé ?

oui non

- si oui, quelles suites avez-vous alors donné ?



Q I-2 Votre installation matérielle

Description sommaire de l’installation de production d'air comprimé

marque descompresseurs

type de com-presseur

puissance etdébits spéci-

fiquespression âge état de mar-

chevitesse élec-

troniquevariable

Description sommaire du réseau de distribution

longueur diamètremoyen

taux de fui-tes âge … …

Description sommaire des conditions de gestion technique / suivi /contrôle

gestion technique centralisée appareils de mesurage (ex: BAREXPERT) télésurveillance autre .........................................................................................................................

Quelle appréciation portez- vous sur le fonctionnement actuel de votrematériel (rendement, fuites, pannes, nécessité de remplacement....) ?

Avez-vous observé ou observez-vous actuellement des pertes de produc-tivité liées à une qualité non optimale de l’air comprimé ? Si oui, précisez-en la cause ?

microchute de pression humidité dans les circuits huile dans les circuits particules

et les conséquences ?............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................



Q I-3 Vos exigences en matière d'air comprimé / vos besoins

Vous utilisez de l’air comprimé

de façon régulière tout au long de l'année- combien d'heures / jour ? ..........................................................................- combien de jours / an ? .............................................................................- combien de semaines / an ? .....................................................................

de façon saisonnière

Qu’attendez-vous de votre centrale d’air comprimé ?

Avez-vous des exigences particulières de qualité ? Si oui veuillez les pré-ciser.

teneur en huile: humidité: point de rosée: particules: niveau sonore: autre(s):

Quel est pour vous le prix d'un incident interrompant la fourniture d'aircomprimé (à exprimer en perte nette de production, perte éventuelle declientèle, prix éventuel de réparation des dommages ...) ?

- une micro-coupure:- une coupure d'une heure:- une coupure d'une journée:- une coupure de quelques jours:

Comment appréciez-vous le besoin en air comprimé de votre entreprisedans les années à venir ?(cochez la case correspondante et précisez ordre de grandeur)

augmentation ................................................................................................... stagnation ........................................................................................................ diminution ........................................................................................................



Précisez en quoi ces variations sont liées à l'activité de votre entreprise.Comment comptez-vous y faire face ?

Q I-4 Le coût de la production d'air comprimé

Dans la production d’air comprimé, diriez-vous que le coût de l’énergieest un critère

majeur moyen mineur

pour quelles raisons ?........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Plus précisément, pouvez-vous donner un ordre de grandeur des coûts deproduction de l’air comprimé dans votre entreprise ?

coût en investissement matériel initial: ........................................................... coût en F de l'électricité air comprimé: ........................................................... part électricité air comprimé / électricité totale: .............................................. coût de maintenance et d'entretien: ............................................................... coût moyen d'achat d'électricité au kWh: ....................................................... coût global au m3 produit: ............................................................................... consommation moyenne en kWh/m3: ............................................................. coût global / produit fini (exemple: XXX kWh/tonne de verre): .......................

aucune idée du coût

Avez vous une idée de l’ampleur des économies possibles sur cette fonc-tion ?

oui non

Si oui, de quel ordre de grandeur ? ..................................................................................................................................................................................................



Si oui, comment en avez-vous eu connaissance ?

diagnostic énergie ADEME / autre bureau d'étudesle personnel de maintenance peut fournir une appréciation globalela fonction air comprimé est suivie précisément par un système de mesuresinterneautre (précisez) ...............................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................

LES CONDITIONS DE LA GESTION DE L'AIR COMPRIME DANS VOTREENTREPRISEQ I-4 Votre gestion de la fonction air compriméQ 2-1 Qui gère la fonction air comprimé dans votre entreprise ?

(Cochez les cases correspondantes et, au besoin, indiquez le nombre de personnes)

personnel internespécifiquement af-fecté à l'air compri-

mépolyvalent

personnelexterne

conduitemaintenancedétection fuites /pannesréparation pannesAutres (précisez)

Qui exprime le besoin d’acheter ou de modifier votre centrale de produc-tion d’air comprimé ? qui est impliqué dans l’achat de nouveau matériel ?

le responsable financier le responsable maintenance le responsable production

Q 2-2 Avez-vous réalisé un audit / diagnostic énergie de votre installation?

non oui (si oui, répondez à Q. 2. 2)

Avez-vous connaissance d’études particulières menées sur ce thème par votrecentre technique ? Si oui, veuillez en préciser les principales conclusions et ré-férences ?............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................



Q 2-2-a Qui a réalisé l’audit de votre installation ?

BARRAULT RECHERCHE

AMTECH AIR LIQUIDE

AIR COMPRIME ENERGIE

SOTRATECH EDF

P. DUMOULIN DALKIA INDUSTELEC GDF TRACTEBEL ELECTRABEL SOCHAN CARBOXYQUE SFEE Autre (précisez) ...................................................................................

...................................................................................................................

Q 2-2-b Coût et financement

Coût de l’audit en F ? ................................................................................

Financement ?

ADEME [ ] % VOUS [ ] % AUTRE [ ] %

Q 2-2-c Quelles ont été les conclusions de l’audit et des actions ont-elles été réalisées ?

réalisé non réalisé

rénovation du matériel existant installation d’appareils de mesure remplacement de compresseurs abandon de l’AC pour certaines fonctions mise en place de VEV modification de l’architecture du réseau mise en place ou amélioration du système de ges-tion centralisée mise en place d’un système de récupération dechaleur dédoublement du réseau (basse pression / hautepression) optimisation du parc machines par modificationdes séquences de fonctionnement amélioration du taux de fuite en réseau nécessité d'externaliser autre

Q 2-3 Quelle est votre position vis à vis de l'externalisation de la fonctionAir Comprimé ?

vous ne connaissez pas cette pratique vous n’avez pas d’avis sur cette pratique



vous y réfléchissez et: vous avez des attentes particulières (passez à Q 2-3-a) vous avez des craintes particulières (passez à Q 2-3-b)

vous avez déjà externalisé suite à une réflexion interne (passez à Q 2-3-a) suite à une décision de votre groupe (passez à Q 2-3-b) en parallèle à l’externalisation d’une autre fonction

� précisez alors la date de l’externalisation: 199… vous avez voulu externaliser, mais aucun prestataire n'était intéressé(répondez aux questions suivantes de Q 2-3)

Q 2-3-a Quelles sont vos attentes et / ou les avantages liés à l'exter-nalisation ?

recentrage sur votre métier de base capacité d'investissement préservée pour le process transfert des risques financiers liés aux investissements matériels surle prestataire maîtrise technique de la qualité diminution des pertes de production liées à la bonne qualité de l’aircomprimé homogénéité de l'offre au niveau national pour vos différentes im-plantations bénéfice d'un service de Recherche & Développement national / in-ternational maîtrise des dépenses récupération de main d'œuvre pour la production occasion de ne pas renouveler un personnel de maintenance sur ledépart (ex: retraite) meilleure efficacité de la maintenance meilleures performances du réseau de distribution bénéfice d'une offre globale (avec l'externalisation d'autres fonctions) autre .....................................................................................................

Q 2-3-b Quelles sont les craintes qu’évoque chez vous l'idée d'ex-ternaliser?

coût élevé de la prestation perte de savoir-faire en interne délais d'intervention longs perte de motivation de votre personnel de maintenance conflits sociaux internes liés à une éventuelle nécessité de licencie-ment, reclassement… manque de souplesse / adaptation difficile aux besoins de production perte de contrôle permanent laisser-aller des performances sur le réseau de distribution diminution de la maintenance préventive



espionnage industriel autre ....................................................................................................

Q 2-3-c Quels ont été les principaux facteurs déclenchants de cettedécision ?

audit-diagnosticdysfonctionnements / pannesde lourds investissements à réaliseraugmentation d’activitéexigences particulières de qualité d’airréduction des dépenses d’exploitation

coûts de maintenancecoûts d’électricité

prise de connaissance d'offres commerciales intéressantesautre (précisez) ...............................................................................................................................................................................................

Q 2-3-d L'externalisation, une décision de votre groupe

Les autres filiales du groupe ont-elles également externalisé ? Sioui, lesquelles et quand ?

Quelles étaient les raisons de cette décision ? (reportez-vous, parexemple à Q 2-3-a ?

Q 2-4 Précisez le niveau d'externalisation

maintenance garantie totale sous-traitée (norme NF x 60-010 niveau 5) contrat d’entretien et de maintenance (norme NF x 60-010 niveau 3 à 5) achat d’air comprimé au m3 + prestations de conduite et maintenance(norme NF x 60-010 niveau 1 à 5) achat d’air comprimé au m3 au sein d’une solution "globale" (fourniture devapeur ou de d’azote par exemple)



Q 2-5 Votre prestataire et vous

Q 2-5-a Lors de votre décision d'externaliser, quelles sociétés deprestataires connaissiez-vous ?

DALKIA AIR LIQUIDE EDF ELYO INDUSTELEC GDF SOCHAN CARBOXIQUE TRACTEBEL ELECTRABEL autre

Q 2-5-b Comment les avez-vous connues ?

elles ont réalisé votre diagnostic énergie elles vous ont été signalées par le bureau d'études/l'expert qui a ré-alisé votre diagnostic elles vous ont été signalées par la direction régionale de l'ADEME elles vous ont fait une offre spontanée elles produisent l'air comprimé d'un industriel de votre connaissance elles vous ont été signalées par la direction de votre groupe elles ont fait la publicité de leurs services dans une presse indus-trielle spécialisée autre (précisez)……………………………………………………………………………

Q 2-5-c Pour le choix du prestataire, comment vous-êtes vous mis /avez-vous été mis en relation?

vous avez été démarché vous avez réalisé une consultation restreinte au sein des prestatairesque vous connaissiez vous avez fait un appel d'offre ouvert autre .....................................................................................................

Q 2-5-d Dans le cas d'un appel d'offre, quelles sont les sociétés quiont répondu


Q 2-5-e Avec qui avez-vous finalement conclu votre contrat d'exter-nalisation ?




Q 2-5-f Pour quelles raisons avez-vous choisi ce prestataire ?

son offre compétitive financièrementsa réputationses garanties

sur la fournituresur la maintenancesur le dépannagesur les économies

son offre clé en main complète et adéquate aux besoinssa capacité d’évolutionsa compréhension de vos besoinssa culture industrielleson implantation nationaleson offre de solution globalesa rapidité d’interventionsa fiabilitésa prise en charge de l'achat de nouveaux investissements

compresseurs génie civil autre

sa transparenceLa qualité des interlocuteurs de terrain et la confiancet qu'ilsinspirent

Q 2-6 Les clauses de votre contrat

date de signature................................................................................................durée....................................................................................................................clauses de renégociation ..................................................................................conditions de renouvellement ..........................................................................

Y a-t-il eu des besoins d'investissement (matériel ou génie civil …) lors del'externalisation ? Si oui, leur prise en charge a-t-elle été totale de la partdu prestataire / partagée ?

Quelles sont les charges d'exploitation (facture d'électricité, maintenance,…) qui restent directement à la charge de votre entreprise ?



Comment réglez-vous votre prestataire ?

mensuellement annuellement autre (précisez) ...............................................................................................

Cette rémunération est-elle ?

indépendante de votre consommation d'air comprimé attachée au volume d'air consommé

Dans ce dernier cas, le tarif est-il ? binôme (partie fixe + prix au m3 consommé) monôme (prix au m3)

Le prix au m3 est-il ? indépendant de la consommation dégressif progressif

Avez-vous négocié ces conditions ? ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Sur quelles bases (garantie sur: fourniture, objectif de consommation fixéen kWh/m3, performance des matériels… ) ? ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Avez-vous imposé des clauses de pénalité pour non garantie des résul-tats ? ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Avez-vous des impératifs particuliers (ex: objectif précis d'efficacité éner-gétique à la production en kWh/m3, objectifs précis sur le nombre de m3,sur le taux de fuite en réseau ?)......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................



Quels sont les autres faits saillants du contrat ?

Q 2-7 A posteriori, quelle appréciation générale portez-vous sur cettedécision ?

très satisfait satisfait moyennement satisfait déçu

Les garanties promises par votre prestataire ont-elles été respectées ?

Cette formule est-elle suffisamment souple ? (évolution du matériel, de laproduction …)

Quels sont la nature (investissement, fonctionnement, maintenance …) etl'ampleur des économies réalisées (kWh, kF, personnel …) ?

Evaluez-vous vos performances "air comprimé" (économique, énergéti-que) en continu avec votre prestataire ? Si oui, comment ?

Avez-vous rencontré des pannes depuis l’externalisation ? Si oui, quellesen ont été les conséquences ?



Quelles ont été les conséquences de l'externalisation sur le personnel demaintenance (effectif, responsabilités, motivation, …)

Cette pratique a-t-elle été l'occasion de vous interroger profondément survotre métier, au-delà même d'une réflexion générale sur les pratiquesénergétiques ? Et d'y répondre sereinement et efficacement ?

VOS SOUHAITS ET ATTENTES VIS A VIS DU FUTUR GUIDE ADEME

Trouvez-vous judicieux que l'ADEME réalise un guide spécifique sur deconseils sur l'externalisation ?

non (justifiez) .................................................................................................. oui (passez aux questions ci-dessous)

Si oui, qu'attendez-vous en particulier ?

des conseils techniques aide au choix des matériels aide au dimensionnement des réseaux aide aux "bonnes techniques" de conduite et de maintenance autre

des conseils financiers relatifs aux différents modes d'emprunt et de crédit relatifs aux avantages fiscaux autre

des conseils stratégiques sur la réflexion à conduire lors d'une externalisation sur la construction d'un contrat sur la négociation d'un contrat sur les acteurs du marché autre

Compressed Air Systems APPENDIX 4: Data Collectionin the European Union 145 Guide for Compressed Air Users


APPENDIX 4:Data Collection Guide for Compressed Air Users

Guide for data collection for Users of Compressed Air SystemsPrepared by Edgar Blaustein, Energy 21

forSAVE contract working group

1. IDENTIFICATION OF CAS USER2. ROLE OF COMPRESSED AIR3. SYSTEM DESIGN, MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION4. COMPRESSED AIR COSTS5. ENERGY SAVINGS MEASURES6. OUTSOURCING7. INSTITUTIONAL ACTION

APPENDIX 4: Data Collection Compressed Air SystemsGuide for Compressed Air Users 146 in the European Union


IDENTIFICATION OF CAS USER

Site visitedName of enterpriseInstallation visited Particular factory or departmentAddress

ContactPerson contacted Name

Function or postTelephoneFaxEmail

ProductionProducts Identification of principal product(s) or service(s)

produced

Approximate indication of quantity or volume produced

Clients General description of market served

Certification Is the enterprise or production site certified? ISO 9000,ISO 14000, EMAS, national certification.



ROLE OF COMPRESSED AIR

Site visitedUses of compressedair

Check uses of compressed air:Materials handling or transportPistons, presses, other mechanical movementBlowing, cleaningDryingHand toolsProcessOther ...

Compressed aircompared to otherforms of energy

Rank in importance:Compressed airHydraulicsMechanical systemsElectric systems

Fluids What other fluid networks do you have?RefrigerationSteamHeatOther gases (nitrogen, oxygen, ...)VacuumOther ...

Satisfaction Overall, is your company satisfied with the compressedair system? If not, what are the problems encountered?

Requirements Can you summarise your requirements for the com-pressed air system? Can you prioritise, cost, quality andreliability?

Compressed air productionCompressormanufacturer

Type kWh m3/hour bar Age Control

Screw,piston, ...

VSD, ...

Volume of com-pressed air

Estimated total consumption, in Nm3/hour, cfm, or otherunits. Volume for each pressure used.

Growth Do you expect your needs for compressed air to grow orshrink in the future? For what reasons?

Distribution network Estimated overall length,Average diameter,Topology,Material,Multiple circuits (pressure or air quality), zones

Control system Type of control system, measuring equipment, teleme-tering, ...

Duty cycle Hours per day or per year



Air qualityDrying and filtering Type of equipment used

Quality require-ments

Requirements for:OilHumidity, dew pointParticlesOther

Air quality standard Do your requirements for air quality correspond to a stan-dard for air quality?

Certification If your enterprise is certified, did the certification processidentify problems with the compressed air system? Whatactions were taken?

Noise Is noise level a consideration for you?

Quality and reliabil-ity problems

Have you experienced problems with your system(breakdown, pressure variation, air quality, ...)?

Future needs Do you expect your compressed air needs to change inthe coming years (quantity, quality, ...)?



SYSTEM DESIGN, MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION

System designDesign responsibility Who was responsible for system design?

Was an outside consultant or engineering firm em-ployed for any phase of the design process?

Design criteria What were the design criteria applied?

Was specific or overall energy consumption a designcriteria?

Were life cycle costs, or overall operating costs amongthe design criteria?

Were specific energy savings measures (advancedcontrol systems, leak detection, multi-stage compres-sor, multiple pressures, ...) considered?

How were system requirements (quantity, quality, ...)determined?

Purchase decisions Who was responsible for purchase decisions? Whatwas the decision process?

Competitive bidding Was a competitive bidding process used?

Were operating or energy costs among the choicecriteria?



System operation and managementResponsibility Who is responsible assigned for the following func-

tions:operationroutine and preventive maintenanceleak detection and repairbreakdownmajor overhaul

Are outside contractors involved in any of these func-tions?

System replacement If in the future, major components of the system mustbe replaced, who will be responsible for deciding onthe replacement? What will be the respective roles ofthe Operations, Maintenance, Purchasing and Financedepartments?

What would the decision process be?Reporting and accounting

Reporting circuit Is anyone responsible for reporting on the compressedair system?

If so, to whom does this person report?

Nature of Reporting What is the nature of reporting?

What information is reported?

What is the frequency of reporting?

Profit centers Does your company use profit center accountingmethods?

If so, how are energy costs assigned to profit centers?

Compressed air costs Do compressed air costs, or energy for compressedair, constitute a specific item in cost accounting?

Are they broken down by department or profit center?



COMPRESSED AIR COSTS

Note: some of the following cost items may be considered to be confidential.Make certain that the contact person is comfortable in divulging information. Wedo not need precise accounting information, only general cost parameters.

Operating and investment costsOriginal investmentcostOverall compressed airoperating costs

Total system operating costs, perhaps broken down bymajor categories (maintenance, ...). (Might be ex-pressed as Euros/year, as Euros/m3 , as percentage ofproduction costs or as Euros/unit of production of com-pany's product, ...).

Energy costs What are your compressed air energy costs.(Might beexpressed as Euros/year, as Euros/m3 or as percent-age of operating costs.)

Perception of costs Does management consider compressed air costs, orcompressed air energy costs to be high, medium orlow?

Are these cost items considered to be a problem?

If so, who is considered to be responsible for solvingthe problem?

Operations problemsBreakdowns Have CAS breakdowns stopped production? Do you

have any figures for the cost of lost production? Ex-pressed as cost/per hour of breakdown, ...

Quality Have compressed air quality problems caused produc-tion problems? Quality of product, reject rate, customerdissatisfaction?

Has the cost of these problems been evaluated?



ENERGY SAVINGS MEASURES

AuditsEnergy or compressedair audits

Has your company done an energy or compressed airsystem audit recently?

If so, who carried out the audit? What was its cost? Didyour company receive any governmental subsidies forthe audit?

To whom was the audit addressed? (Production,Maintenance, Accounting, ...)

Recommendations What were the recommendations of the audit?

Results If audit recommendations were carried out, have youevaluated the impact (in terms of cost, quality or reli-ability)?

LeaksLeak Do you have an idea of the percentage of air leaks?

Leak detection proce-dures

Are there any leak detection procedures? (Type, fre-quency, who carries them out).

Leak correction meas-ures

Are there any regular leak correction measures?(Regular replacement of flexible hoses, etc.)

Cost reductionPossible savings Do you have an estimation of possible savings in the

compressed air function? If so, on what is this estima-tion based?

Cost reduction meas-ures

Are you considering any measures to reduce the costof the compressed air function in your company? If so,what measures?

Decision process What would be the decision process for decidingmeasures for cost reduction in compressed air? Who isinvolved?



Specific measuresWhat compressed air related energy savings measures has your company con-sidered?

Check if any of the following specific measures have been considered.Overhaul existing equipmentReplace part of the existing installationInstall additional measuring equipmentReplace compressed air by some other energy sourceInstall improved control system (perhaps including VSD)Modify distribution network architectureReplace pipingLeak detectionUse waste heatOutsourcingOtherSpecify or comment



OUTSOURCING

Perception of outsourcingOutsourcing consid-ered?

Has your company considered outsourcing the entirecompressed air function? If so, when, and with whatconclusion.

Criteria in evaluatingoutsourcing

If you have considered outsourcing, rate the followingcriteria as positive, negative or indifferent in youevaluation of outsourcing ("+ / – / blank")

Concentrate on core activitiesFree investment capacity for other activitiesQuality of compressed airReliability of the compressed air systemReduced cost of compressed airImproved cost controlAvailability of a single source for several plantsR&D capacity of service providersConcentrate skilled personnel on other activitiesReduce personnelAvailability of an overall solution, including several gasesCost of outsourcingLoss of in house competenceDelay in case of breakdownProblems with company maintenance personnelPreventive maintenanceLeak controlIndustrial espionage

Experience with outsourcing(Only applicable if outsourcing is used in the company)

Satisfaction Are you satisfied with outsourcing of the compressedair function? Specify.

Payment Is billing dependant on the quantity of compressed airused? If so, how is consumption measured (hours ofoperation, or actual measurement of m3)

Energy costs Who pays for energy costs? (Specify for motors and forauxiliary functions such as air drying, compressorhouse heating-lighting-ventilation)



INSTITUTIONAL ACTION

TaxationKnowledge of fiscalsupport for energy effi-ciency

Are you aware of the fiscal measures in your country toencourage energy efficiency measures?

Evaluation of fiscalmeasures

Do you believe these fiscal measures are effective?Has your company taken their impact into account indecisions on compressed air related decisions?

European or national support measuresDirectorate General XVII (Energy) of the European Union is considering variousmeasures to encourage energy savings in Compressed Air Systems. Could youindicate what types of institutional action you believe might be useful?

Usefulness of possiblemeasures

Could you give your opinion of the usefulness of thefollowing measures under consideration.. Rate the fol-lowing measures as useful, useless or indifferent ("+ / –/ blank")

Labelling. Some kind of product labelling for compressors and airhandling relative to their specific energy consumption.If you believe that labelling might be useful, what kind of product informa-tion would you like to see?

Voluntary agreements by equipment manufacturers to improve theenergy efficiency of compressed air equipment.Procurement. Organisation of a buyers’ consortium in your industry,which would initiate a bidding process for the supply of energy effi-cient compresses air equipment.If you believe that a procurement program might be useful, what kind ofspecifications would you like to see included in the bidding program?

Dissemination of information, training and education focused onimproving compressed air system energy consumptionDemonstration and pilot actions to identify and demonstrate energyefficient design, equipment and practices for compressed air systems.Development of accounting and measurement tools. The SAVEprogram has supported research on introducing analytical accountingmethods for electricity use. Do you see similar tools for compressedair as being potentially useful?Creation of a standard contractual framework for outsourcing ofthe compressed air function, to aid companies in including effectivecontrol of energy costs in outsourcing contracts.Contests and awards to identify the best performing machine corre-sponding to a given set of specifications.

Comment

Compressed Air Systems APPENDIX 5: Qualitative Data Collectionin the European Union 157 Guide for Equipment Manufacturers


APPENDIX 5:Qualitative Data Collection Guide for EquipmentManufacturers

Guide for data collection for Manufacturersof Compressed Air Systems

Draft, v1Prepared by Edgar Blaustein, Energy 21

forSAVE contract working group

1. IDENTIFICATION OF MANUFACTURER OR DISTRIBUTOR2. PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED OR SOLD3. SYSTEM DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE4. ENERGY SAVINGS MEASURES

APPENDIX 5: Qualitative Data Collection Compressed Air SystemsGuide for Equipment Manufacturers 158 in the European Union


IDENTIFICATION OF MANUFACTURER OR DISTRIBUTOR

Site visitedName of enterpriseName of parent com-panyAddress

ContactPerson contacted Name

Function or postTelephoneFaxEmail

PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED OR SOLD

ProductionProducts Check products lines offered

Drive systems and componentsCompressors, compressor packagesFiltering equipment and componentsDrying equipment and componentsPiping, tubing, etc.Measuring and leak detection equipmentControl systems and components.Other ________________________________

Clients General description of market served, including geo-graphic regions, industrial sectors or other end users,type of client (captive distribution network, independentdistributors, final users, ...).

Suppliers (for distribu-tors)

Who, in general, are your suppliers? Types of compa-nies (component manufacturers, assemblers, ...). Im-port or European production.

Certification Is the enterprise or production site certified? ISO 9000,ISO 14000, EMAS, national certification.



Sales strategiesEnergy efficiency as asales argument

Does your product advertising mention the energy effi-ciency or specific energy consumption of your prod-ucts?

How are energy consumption criteria integrated intoyour sales activities?

Energy savingsproducts

Does your company manufacturer products which youbelieve are more energy efficient than the averageproduct sold on the market? If so, which products?

Do these products benefit from particular type of salesefforts (special brochures, advertising programmes,...)?

Training Does your company provide any specific training pro-grammes or materials focused on energy consump-tion? If so, is this material aimed at the sales force? Isit available to end users?

Audits As part of your sales efforts, does your company carryout audits of user needs, which include aspects of anenergy audit?

If so, how is this done? Can you comment on the re-sults and findings?



SYSTEM DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE

End user system designDesign responsibility In your view, who is generally responsible for designing

the CAS into which your products are integrated? Doesyour firm counsel system designers? Are you in director indirect contact with system designers? If so, in whatmanner?

Energy efficiency re-lated design options

To the best of your knowledge, what proportion of CASdesigns took into account the following options (esti-mate as quartiles, that is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4 fourths):

Reduced system pressureMultiple system pressuresAdequate distribution network designOptimal control of multi compressor systemsWaste heat recovery

Design criteria In your view, what are the principal design criteria ap-plied by system designers?

Is specific or overall energy consumption a design cri-teria?

Are life cycle costs, or overall operating costs amongthe design criteria?

How were system requirements (quantity, quality, ...)determined?

Purchase decisions In your view, how do your clients make purchase deci-sions? What is the decision process, and who are themain actors?

Competitive bidding Does your firm often respond to competitive biddingtenders?

If so, are operating or energy costs among the choicecriteria?

MaintenanceAfter sales service Does your firm provide after sales service?

If so, to whom (distributor or final user). What is thefunction of the people who contact your firm for service(distributors after sales service technician, final userproduction or maintenance department, specialisedmaintenance firms, ...)?



Quality of maintenance In your view, are your products generally well main-tained in the field? If not, what are the major short-comings of maintenance?

In general, does the equipment you sell benefit fromregularly scheduled preventive maintenance pro-grammes?

Energy efficiency re-lated maintenancepractices

To the best of your knowledge, what proportion of us-ers provide for the following types of maintenance totheir CAS (estimate as quartiles, that is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4fourths):

Control of leaksControl of filter pressure dropProper operation of condensate trapsTracking of system performancePeriodic review of system requirements

ENERGY SAVINGS MEASURES

We would appreciate your evaluation of the technical and economic potential ofvarious energy savings measures presented in the following table. The table isdivided into two sections.

− The first contains measures applicable at the time of system design, or re-placement of major components. These options should be considered incomparison with the design of average quality existing installations.

− The second section contains measures having to do with system operationand maintenance. The enumerated measures should be considered in thelight of existing practices in average quality systems.

For both tables, we would like your opinion on:

− the applicability of the measure, measured as the percentage of systems forwhich the measure would provide cost effective improvement of the energyefficiency of the system;

− the percentage gains in energy efficiency which could be expected (in thosesystems where the measure is applicable);

− payback time for the measure, in months. Payback time is to be calculatedfor the additional cost of the measure, as compared with a standard system.



Ener

gy s

avin

gs m

easu

re%

appl

icab

ility

(1)

%ga

ins

(2)

payb

ack

time

(3)

appl

icat

ions

(4)

Syst

em in

stal

latio

n or

rene

wal

Impr

ovem

ent o

f driv

es: u

se o

f hig

h ef

ficie

ncy

mot

ors;

inte

grat

ion

of V

SD´s

into

com

pres

sors

Upg

radi

ng o

f com

pres

sor (

for e

xam

ple,

to 2

sta

geco

mpr

esso

r)U

se o

f sop

hist

icat

ed c

ontro

l sys

tem

s

Rec

uper

atin

g w

aste

hea

t for

use

in o

ther

func

tions

Impr

oved

coo

ling,

dry

ing

and

filte

ring

Ove

rall

syst

em d

esig

n, in

clud

ing

mul

ti-pr

essu

re s

ys-

tem

sR

educ

ing

frict

iona

l pre

ssur

e lo

sses

(for

exa

mpl

e by

choo

sing

larg

er p

ipe

diam

eter

)O

ptim

izin

g ce

rtain

end

use

dev

ices

Oth

er _

____

__

Syst

em o

pera

tion

and

mai

nten

ance

Red

ucin

g ai

r lea

ks

Mea

surin

g an

d tra

ckin

g sy

stem

per

form

ance

Mor

e fre

quen

t filt

er re

plac

emen

t

Oth

er _

____

__

Documents

Compressed Air Systems in the European Unionair.avexa.se/air/down/eu_compressed_air.pdf · case studies show that savings in the range from 5 to 50 % are possible. A large technical