Upload
others
View
7
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
1
Αισθητήρες και Συστήµατα Οργάνων
• Εισαγωγή
• Βασική Θεωρία Μετρήσεων
• Αρχές των Βασικών Αισθητήρων
• Αισθητήρες ΜΕΜΣ
• Σήµατα και Θόρυβο
• Ενισχυτές Σηµάτων
• Σύνδεση και Προστασία Σηµάτων
• Συλλογή δεδοµένων και Μετατροπείς Δεδοµένων
• Ηλεκτρική Ασφάλεια σε Ιατρικά Συστήµατα
2
Στόχοι
• Να γνωρίζετε την βάση στην οποία γίνονται οι ακόλουθες µετρήσεις ή πως δουλεύουν τα ακόλουθα στοιχεία:
Μετρήσεις Μετατοπίσεων Displacement Measurements
Θερµίστορ Thermistors
Αισθητήρες που αλλάζουν αντίσταση Resistive Sensors
Θερµοµετρία τύπου Ακτινοβολίας Radiation Thermometry
Διατάξεις Γέφυρας Bridge Circuits
Αισθητήρας Θερµοκρασίας µε οπτική ίνα Fiber-optic Temperature Sensors
Επαγωγικοί Αισθητήρες Inductive Sensors
Οπτικές Μετρήσεις Optical Measurements
Χωρητικοί Αισθητήρες Capacitive Sensors
Πηγές Ακτινοβολίας Radiation Sources
Πιεζοηλεκτρικοί Αισθητήρες Piezoelectric Sensors
Γεωµετρικά οπτικά και οπτικές ίνες Geometrical and Fibre Optics
Μετρήσεις Θερµοκρασίας Temperature Measurements
Οπτικά φίλτρα Optical Filters
Θερµοζεύγοι Thermocouples
Αισθητήρες Ακτινοβολίας Radiation Sensors
Τι είναι αισθητήρας; What is a sensor?
Actuators Sensors
Physical parameter
Electrical Output
Electrical Input
Physical Output
e.g. Piezoelectric:
Force -> voltage
Voltage-> Force
=> Ultrasound!
• Almost any physical property of a material that changes in response to some excitation can be used to produce a sensor • widely used sensors include those that are:
• resistive • inductive • capacitive • piezoelectric • photoresistive • elastic • thermal.
• Χαρακτηριστικά αισθητήρων: • Στατικά / Static:
• Έξοδος πλήρους κλίµακας (full scale output) • Γραµµικότητα (linearity) • Ευαισθησία (sensitivity) • Προσδιοριστικότητα (specificity) • Λόγος σήµατος προς θόρυβο (Signal-to-Noise ratio) • Σταθερότητα (stability) • Υστέρηση (hysteresis) • Βαθµονόµηση (calibration) • Σφάλµα (error)
• Δυναµικά / Dynamic: • Συνάρτηση µεταφοράς / απόκριση συχνότητας (transfer function /
frequency response) • Απόκριση κλιµακωτής συνάρτησης (step function response)
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Βαθµονόµηση / Calibration
12
13
14
Είδη αισθητήρων / Sensor types
• Temperature sensors: • resistive thermometers, thermistors, pn junctions
• Light sensors: • Photovoltaic, photoconductive
• Force sensors: • Strain gage
• Displacement sensors: • Potentiometers, inductive proximity sensors, switches, opto-
switches, absolute position encoders, incremental position encoders
• Motion sensors • Sound sensors
15
16
Μετρήσεις Μετατοπίσεων Displacement Measurements
• Displacements are measured in meters. The meter was redefined in 1960 to represent:
1,650,763.73 wavelengths of light in vacuum, from a krypton-86 lamp.
• If we want to find velocity then we need a standard for time which was defined in 1964:
One second is the time taken for 9,192,631,770 cycles of the atomic resonant frequency of cesium 133.
17
Αισθητήρες που αλλάζουν αντίσταση Resistive Sensors - Potentiometers
• Need Excitation voltage • Vout/Vexc=Xi/Xmax • 2-500mm linear range • 5-6480° angular range • Resolution is a function of
construction • Carbon film • Wirewound • Metal film • Conduction ceramic
• Must be careful not to load circuit with voltage measuring device
18
Αισθητήρες που αλλάζουν αντίσταση Resistive Sensors - Potentiometers
• Wirewound Potentiometers • Greater resistance value range (10Ω-few MΩ) • Stepwise variation in resistance
19
Αισθητήρες που αλλάζουν αντίσταση Resistive Sensors – Strain Gages
• Resistance of conductor of cross sectional area A and length L of material with resistance ρ
20
Αισθητήρες που αλλάζουν αντίσταση Resistive Sensors – Strain Gages
ALR ρ
=
AdLdA
AL
AdLdR ρρρ
+−= 2
ρρΔ
+Δ
−Δ
=Δ
AA
LL
RR
The differential change in R is given by
Dividing 2 by 1 gives:
1
2
3
21
Αισθητήρες που αλλάζουν αντίσταση Resistive Sensors – Strain Gages
LL
DD Δ
−=Δ
µ
ρρ
µΔ
+Δ
+=Δ
LL
RR )21(
Dimensional effect
Poisson’s ratio µ relates the change in diameter ΔD to the change in length ΔL which if substituted into 3 gives:
Piezoresistive effect
Change in resistivity due to strain induced changes in the lattice structure
22
Αισθητήρες που αλλάζουν αντίσταση Resistive Sensors – Strain Gages
LL
LLRR
GFΔ
Δ
++=Δ
Δ=
ρρ
µ)21(
In order to compare different strain gauge materials the gage factor G is used:
StrainLL =Δ
Semiconductors have high GF but need circuits to compensate for their high temperature coefficients!
23
Αδέσµευτος Μετρητής Επιµήκυνσης Unbonded Strain Gages
Blood pressure is measured by measuring the displacement of the diaphragm via the unbonded strain gauge configured as a wheatstone bridge
The wheatstone bridge on the right is
Trimming circuit
24
Δεσµευµένος Μετρητής Επιµήκυνσης Bonded Strain Gages
• Conductor is glued to support material.
• Changes in resistance are large since have longer conductor in small area
25
Διατάξεις Γέφυρας Bridge Circuits- one active arm
VE
XC
VSEN
2EXC
SENVV =+
RRRRVV EXCSEN Δ+
Δ+=− 2
⎥⎦
⎤⎢⎣
⎡Δ+
Δ+−=
RRRRVV EXCSEN 22
1
26
Διατάξεις Γέφυρας Bridge Circuits – two active arms
VE
XC
VSEN
2EXC
SENVV =+
RRRVV EXCSEN 2Δ+
=−
⎥⎦
⎤⎢⎣
⎡ Δ+−=
RRRVV EXCSEN 22
1
27
Διατάξεις Γέφυρας Bridge Circuits – four active arms
VE
XC
VSEN RRRVV EXCSEN 2Δ+
=−
⎥⎦
⎤⎢⎣
⎡Δ−=RRVV EXCSEN
RRRVV EXCSEN 2Δ−
=+
28
Επαγωγικοί Αισθητήρες Inductive Sensors
Inductive sensors may be used to measure displacement by varying any three of the coil parameters
L=inductance, n=number of turns of coil, G=geometric form factor, µ=effective permeability of medium
ADVANTAGES • Not effected by dielectric properties of environment
DISADVANTAGES • Sensitive to adjacent magnetic fields
29
Inductive Sensors
Self-inductance (a) • Alterations in self-inductance of a coil may be produced by changing
the geometric form factor or inner core. • Alteration in self-inductance and change in displacement are not
linearly related • Devices have low power requirements • Produce large variations in inductance
Self-inductance displacement sensors
30
Inductive Sensors
Mutual-inductance (b) • Transformer on one coil • Uses the variation in the mutual magnetic coupling of both coils by
changing geometry • Function of geometry, frequency, amplitude
Mutual-inductance displacement sensors
31
Inductive Sensors
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) (c) • Used to measure pressure, displacement and force • Coupling between primary and secondary coils is changed by the
motion of an alloy slug • Secondary coil connected in opposition to increase linearity • Primary coil exited with 20 Hz to 60 kHz • Sensitivity is much higher than that of strain gages
Differential transformer displacement sensors .
32
Inductive Sensors
Induced magnetic field in secondary coils
(a) As x moves through the null position, the phase changes 180°, while the magnitude of vo is proportional to the magnitude of x. (b) An ordinary rectifier-demodulator cannot distinguish between (a) and (b), so a phase-sensitive demodulator is required.
Secondarycoil 1:vceSecondarycoil 2:ved
Outputvoltage: vcd =vce− ved
33
Χωρητικοί Αισθητήρες Capacitive Sensors
Capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is
• Change of distance x lead to a change of C
Sensitivity K of a capacitive sensor is Substitution of 2.8 in 2.9 results in
• Showing percent change in C about any neutral point is equal to the per-unit change in x for small displacements
34
Capacitive Sensors
EXAMPLE • Capacitance sensor for measuring dynamic displacement changes as
used in capacitance microphones • DC-excited circuit (no excitation → no current)
Capacitance sensor for measuring dynamic displacement changes.
35
Πιεζοηλεκτρικοί Αισθητήρες Piezoelectric Sensors
Piezoelectric sensors are used to measure (minor)
physiological displacement (e.g. heart sounds) • Piezoelectrical materials generate an electric potential when
mechanically strained • With infinite leakage current the total induced charge q is directly
proportional to the applied force f (k = piezoelectric constant)
• Assuming the system acts like a parallel plate condensator
36
Piezoelectric Sensors
(a) Equivalent circuit of piezoelectric sensor, where
Rs = sensor leakage resistance, Cs = sensor capacitance
Cc = cable capacitance Ca = amplifier input capacitance,
Ra = amplifier input resistance q = charge generator (b) Modified equivalent circuit with
current generator replacing charge generator.
Piezoelectric materials have a high but finite resistance
Modified circuit shown in 2.10 b where Rs and Cs have been combined. Assuming that the amp. does not draw any current
37
Piezoelectric Sensors
K=proportionality constant x=deflection Ks=K/C=sensitivity τ=RC=time constant
From dq/dt
From Q=CV
or
38
Piezoelectric Sensors
Voltage-output response of a piezoelectric sensor to a step displacement x. • The output decays exponentially because of the finite internal
resistance of the piezoelectric material.
Sensor response to a step displacement (From Doebelin, E. O. 1990. Measurement Systems: Application and Design, New York: McGraw-Hill.)
39
Piezoelectric Sensors
High-frequency circuit model (a) and piezoelectric sensor frequency response (b)
(a) High-frequency circuit model for piezoelectric sensor. Rs is the sensor leakage resistance and Cs the capacitance. Lm, Cm, and Rm represent the mechanical system, (b) Piezoelectric sensor frequency response. (From Transducers for Biomedical Measurements: Principles and Applications, by R. S. C. Cobbold. Copyright (c) 1974, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)
40
Μετρήσεις Θερµοκρασίας Temperature Measurements
Why temperature measurement • Patient's body temp. gives important information • Drop in big-toe temp. is a good early clinical warning of shock • High temp. like fever destroys temp.-sensitive enzymes and proteins • Anaesthesia decreases body-temp. by depressing thermal regulatory
center • Increased blood flow due to arthritis and chronic inflammation can be
detected by thermal measurements
Used types of thermally sensitive methods of measurement • Thermocouples • Thermistors • Radiation • Fiber-optic detectors
41
Θερµοηλεκτρισµός Thermoelectric Effect
• Seebeck Effect: the conversion of temperature differences directly to electricity.
• Peltier Effect: Heating or cooling at junction of two different conductors when current is driven through the junction. It is dependent of the direction of the current. (Not to be confused with self-heating)
• Thomson-effect: In some homogeneous materials, the Seebeck coefficient is not constant in temperature, and so a spatial gradient in temperature results in a gradient in Seebeck coefficient. If a current is driven through this gradient then a continuous version of the Peltier effect will occur.
The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage and vice versa.
42
Θερµοζεύγοι Thermocouples
Thermoelectric based thermometry • An electromotive force (voltage) exists across a junction of two
dissimilar metals. The electromotive field:
where S is the Seebeck coefficent and is the gradient in temperature
Atomic scale explanation:
• different temperatures give different quantity of free charges in a material, so carriers diffuse from higher concentration to lower concentration.
Eemf = −S∇T∇T
43
Θερµοζεύγοι Thermocouples
• Practically it is not easy to use the above described effects for thermometry
• Solution is to use empirical approach to modelling non-linear effects for thermometry:
• One junction must be kept a known temperature e.g. in ice bath, whilst other is placed at measurand location
44
Connecting Thermocouples
Connecting Thermocouples: • First Law- Homogenenous circuits, states that in a circuit composed of
a single homogeneous metal , one cannot maintain an electric current by the application of heat alone.
• Second Law- Intermediate Metals, states that the net emf in a circuit consisting of an interconnection of a number of unlike metals maintained at the same temperature is zero.
Thermocouple circuits (a) Peltier emf. (b) Law of homogeneous circuits, (c) Law of intermediate metals.
e.g. 0°C
45
Connecting Thermocouples
Connecting Thermocouples: • Third Law- successive or intermediate temperatures, when E1 is
generated with two dissimilar metals and T1 and T2 and when E2 is generated by T2 and T3, it follows that when the junctions are at T1 and T3 an emf of “E1+E2” is generated.
(d) Law of intermediate temperatures
46
Thermocouples
Rather than use ice bath as reference once can use an electronic cold junction
The LT1025 electronic cold junction and the hot junction of the thermocouple yield a voltage that is amplified by an inverting amplifier.
47
Thermocouples
Advantages l Fast response time: as small as 1 ms l Small size: down to 12 µm diameter l Ease of fabrication l Long-term stability Disadvantages l Small output voltage l Low sensitivity l Need of reference voltage
48
Θερµίστορ Thermistors
Thermistors are semiconductors made of ceramic materials that are thermal resistors with a high negative temperature coefficient.
l React in a way that is opposite to metal ones R decreases if T increases
l Have usually non-linear temperature coefficients (α) which have to be compensated
l Circuitry for thermistor readout is usually a bridge (see figure 2.2) giving good accuracy with high sensitivity
49
Thermistors
Advantages • Good suitable for biomedical use • Small in size: can be less than 0.5 mm in diameter) • Large sensitivity to temperature changes • Excellent long term stability characteristics
Caution: Use V=IR to find R, however whilst biasing with V and measuring I (or vice-versa) must be careful to not to self-heat!!!
50
Thermistors
(a) Typical thermistor zero-power resistance ratio-temperature characteristics for various materials,
(b) Thermistor voltage-versus-current characteristic for a thermistor in air and water.
linear resistance values
degree of thermistor linearity at low currents.
intersection of the thermistor curves and the diagonal lines with negative slope give the device power dissipation.
Max current value with no appreciable self heat
Peak voltage
51
Empirical relationship between thermistor resistance Rt and absolute temperature T in Kelvin
β = material constant for thermistor in Kelvin T0 = standard reference temperature in Kelvin
Temperature coefficient α
Thermistors
52
Θερµοµετρία µέσω Ακτινοβολίας Radiation Thermometry
There is a relationship between surface temperature of an object and its radiant power
• Every body with temperature above zero radiates electromagnetic power
• Wavelength depends on temperature • Therefore possibility to apply contact-free temperature
measurement
53
Radiation Thermometry
Emitted radiation at specific wavelength
ε=emissivity, extent by which a surface deviates from a blackbody
T=Blackbody temperature, K C1 and C2 = const.
Wavelength with maximum radiation, by differentiating above equation and solving for zero. Wien’s displacement law:
54
Radiation Thermometry
Total radiation power (Stefan-Boltzmann law) by integrating wavelengths:
σ=Boltzmann constant Percentage of total radiant power versus wavelength (Blackbody at room
temperature) Spectral radiant emittance versus wavelength for a blackbody at 300 K on the left vertical
axis; percentage of total energy on the right vertical axis.
55
Radiation Thermometry
Spectral transmission and sensitivity (b) Spectral transmission for a number of optical materials. (c) Spectral sensitivity of photon and thermal detectors.
56
Radiation Thermometry
Measuring radiation temperature
• Usage of specific materials for lenses so important wavelengths won’t be cut out
• Mirror for focusing radiation on detector
• Beam-chopper to interrupt radiation at several hundred hertz therefore high-gain ac amplifiers can be used
• After filtering dc output quantifies radiation strength
57
Radiation Thermometry
Stationary chopped-beam radiation thermometer Stationary chopped-beam radiation thermometer
58
Αισθητήρας Θερµοκρασίας µε Οπτική Ίνα Fiber-optic Temperature Sensors
Less influence by surrounding electromagnetic fields LED emits light, which is mirrored by GaAs sensor Differences in measured light are equivalent to temperature (increased absorbance with increased temperature)
Details of the fiber-sensor arrangement for the GaAs semiconductor temperature probe.
59
Οπτικές Μετρήσεις Optical Measurements
Used for analyzing blood samples, tissue samples and oxygen saturation of hemoglobin
(a) General block diagram of an optical instrument. Intense lamp and lenses used for analyzing a sample
(b) Highest efficiency is obtained by using an intense lamp and lenses to gather and focus the
light on the sample in the cuvette, and a sensitive detector.
60
Optical Measurements
Simplified System
Solid-state lamps and detectors my simplify the system
61
Πηγές Ακτινοβολίας Radiation Sources – Tungsten lamps
• Broad spectral output • Distinct difference in amplitude and peak wavelength at other temperatures
Light sources: tungsten (W) at 3000 K has a broad spectral output. At 2000 K, output is
lower at all wavelengths and peak output shifts to longer wavelengths. Light-emitting diodes yield a narrow spectral output with GaAs in the infrared, GaP in the red, GaAsP in the green. Monochromatic outputs from common lasers are shown by dashed lines: Ar, 515 nm; HeNe, 633 nm; ruby, 693 nm; Nd, 1064 nm; CO2 (not shown), 10,600 nm.
62
Radiation Sources – Arc discharges
Arc discharge lamps (fluorescent lamps) • Filled with gas (Ar-Hg) • Electrons are accelerated and collide with gas atoms • Gas Atoms are raised to an excited level • As gas atom’s electrons transit from higher to lower
level, quantums of energy are emitted • UV->Visible via phosphor coating inside lamp.
E=hf=hc/λ h= Planck’s constant, f=frequency, c= speed of light, λ= wavelength Low pressure discharge lamps • Turn on/off time: ~ 20µs (very fast) • Example: Tachistoscope High pressure discharge lamps • Light source for optical measurement • Arc-source is compact (point-source) • Radiant output per unit area is high • Examples: Xenon (white), sodium (yellow), mercury
(bluish-green)
Arc discharge Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arc_discharge_nanotube.png
63
Radiation Sources – LEDS
• Forward current in p-n junction emits radiant power
• Spontaneous recombination of injected hole and electron pairs results in radiation emission.
• Use of different materials with different bandgap energy levels create different wavelengths
• GaAs (Gallium Arsenide) device is one of the most efficient devices
64
65
Radiation Sources – LASERS
66
Radiation Sources – LASERS
P-n junction lasers • High current density necessary (10³ A/cm²) • Monochromatic light, collimated and phase coherent He-Ne laser • Common operation at 633 nm • Provides up to 100 mW Argon laser • Wavelength around 515 nm • High power level (1-15 W)
CO2-laser • Output power from 50 to 500 W • Used for cutting plastics, rubber and metals up to 1 cm thickness Usage of two Solid-state lasers (glass or crystal instead of gas) • Ruby laser, with output of 1 mJ at 693 nm • Nd: YAG laser, output of 2 W/mm² at 1064 nm
Most important medical usage of lasers for mending tears in retina
67
Γεωµετρικά οπτικά και οπτικές ίνες Geometrical and Fibre Optics
Geometrical optics • Create optical path • Collimation and filtering through lenses, mirrors and such Fiber optics • Transmitting radiation through transparent glass or plastic fiber surrounded
by second material Snell’s law nx=refractive index θ=angle of incidence Critical angle for reflection
68
Geometrical and Fibre Optics
Fiber optics • Solid line shows refraction of rays escaping through wall of fiber • Dashed line shows internal reflection within fiber
Fig. 2.23 The solid line shows refraction of rays that escape through the wall of the fiber. The
dashed line shows total internal reflection within a fiber.
69
Geometrical and Fibre Optics
Noncoherent bundles (light guides) • No correlation between fiber’s spatial position at input and output • Useful for transmitting radiation Application example: • Measuring of bloody oxygen saturation • Two wavelengths transmitted through one bundle • Backscattered radiation by red-blood cells is returned to instrument for
analysis Coherent-fiber bundles • Fibers occupy same relative position at both ends • An image is transmitted from one side to the other • Used for endoscopes • Additional fiber can be used for transmitting light
70
Liquid Crystals
• Crystals melt with increasing temperature • Changed state of crystals modify scattering and absorption of light • Colour pattern can indicates rise of temperature • Electrical field can orient molecules with electric dipole • Used for digital-displays, wristwatches etc.
Polarized light can enter the second polarizer and it is reflected back to the surface
×
Polarized light cannot enter the second polarizer. No light is reflected. A dark surface is observed.
Liquid Crystal Display
72
Οπτικά φίλτρα Optical Filters
Glass • Different glasses with different behavior
• Crown glass – no transmitting below 300 nm
• Fused quartz (silica glass) – ultraviolet light
• Generally bad transmission above 2600 nm, so other materials are used for lenses and mirrors (i.e. Ge, Si, Al2O3 etc.)
Radiation Detectors
Fig 2.21 (c) Detectors: The S4 response is a typical phototube response. The eye has a relatively narrow response, with colors indicated by VBGYOR. CdS plus a filter has a response that closely matches that of the eye. Si p-n junctions are widely used. PbS is a sensitive infrared detector. InSb is useful in far infrared. Note: These are only relative responses. Peak responses of different detectors differ by 107.
73
74
Αισθητήρες Ακτινοβολίας Radiation Sensors
Thermal Sensors • Absorb radiation and transforms it to heat (i.e.
thermistors, thermocouple)
• Slow response rate
• Sensitivity does not change with wavelength
• Pyroelectric sensors produce a charge on surface by repolarization (similar to piezoelectric materials)
• This current is proportional to the rate of change of temperature
• As the dc response is zero, a mechanical chopper is needed
75
Radiation Sensors
Quantum sensors • Absorbs energy from photons • The absorbed energy releases electrons
from the sensor material • Rapid response • Restricted band of wavelengths E.g. Photodiode, is usually reverse biased
• Light creates electron hole pair in depletion region • Electric field sweeps carriers out to give current
76
Radiation Sensors
Photoemissive sensors • Photocathodes, which are hit by photons, free electrons • Electrons wandering through photomultiplier produce around 1 µA • Coiling is needed, to prevent measurement of thermal generated electrons • This technology is mostly replaced by photodiodes already Fig. 2.24 Photomultiplier An incoming photon strikes the photocathode and liberates an
electron. This electron is accelerated toward the first dynode, which is 100 V more positive than the cathode. The impact liberates several electrons by secondary emission. They are accelerated toward the second dynode, which is 100 V more positive than the first dynode. This electron multiplication continues until it reaches the anode.
77
Radiation Sensors
Avalanche Photodiode • Strong electric field (110V) • Electrons are accelerated • Energy transfer energy to
subsequent bound electrons • Quenching circuit is required
to stop process. • Quenching rate is
proportional to radiation
78
Radiation Sensors
Photoconductive cells / Photoresistor • Change of conductivity by reception of photons • Energy transferred to electrons in receiver material • Electrons move to conduction band, and electron-hole pairs are created • Therefore conductivity increases with input radiation • Radiation can be measured as current flow
E.g. cadmium sulfide (CdS), Lead sulfide (PbS), indium antimonide (inSb) etc.
79
Radiation Sensors
Photojunction Sensor Summary • Based on p-n junction, usually of silicon • Photocurrent is created by excited electrons, that gained energy from
radiation to pass the band gap • Used in photodiodes, phototransistors, photo FETs etc. • Modern photojunction sensors mostly replaced photomultipliers
• Photovoltaic mode -> zero bias • Photoconductive mode -> reverse bias • Avalanche Photoconductive mode -> very large reverse bias (photo-induced free carrier multiplication)
80
Radiation Sensors
Voltage-current characteristics of irradiated silicon p-n junction For 0 irradiance, both forward and reverse characteristics are normal. For 1 mW/cm², open-
circuit voltage is 500 mV, and short-circuit current is 0.8 µA. For 10 mW/cm², open-circuit voltage is 600 mV, and short-circuit current is 8 µA.
81
Radiation Sensors
Photovoltaic sensors • Same p-n junction as used for photojunction • Open-circuit voltage is created when receiving radiation • Voltage rises logarithmically from 100 to 500 mV with input radiation
increasing by factor 104
• Principle is used with solar cells for conversion from the sun’s radiation into electric power
Spectral response • Mentioned silicon sensors have no response at wavelengths above
1100 nm (Radiation energy too low) • Wavelengths below 900 nm also have none or low response
(fewer photons per Watt) • Special sensors have been developed (i.e. InSb) to be able to measure the
radiation of the skin (300 K, peak output at 9000 nm)
82
Optical Combinations
Specify the combination of sources, filter and sensors • For specifications, the effective irradiance should be calculated
Sλ=relative source output Fλ=relative filter transmission
Dλ=relative sensor responsivity Results of calculation are shown in Fig. 2.21 (d)
Optical Combinations
Fig. 2.21 (d) Combination: Indicated curves from (a), (b) and (c) are multiplied at each
wavelength to yield (d), which shows how well source, filter, and detector are matched.
83