Liliana Albertazzi the Aesthetics of Particulars

8/12/2019 Liliana Albertazzi the Aesthetics of Particulars

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T H E A E S T H E T I C S O F PA R T I C U L A R S :A C A S E O F IN T U I T I V E M E C H A N I C S

Liliana Albertazzi

Karl zu eigen

lch.., fragte.., ob sie (d ie Vp.) nicht.., das eine dieser Rechteckeverm~Sge seines an der n Se itenverhnltnisses gef;-illiger, befridin-gender, harmonischer, elega nter fin den k6nnte, als alas andere...Aus den Aussagen der Vp. wfihlen wir nur folgende: Eine D amezog 2:1 vor, weil es so sch6hn schlank sei ([Fechner 1896], 195).

1. The aesthetics of particulars

I s t h e r e a n aesthetics of paruculars a n a e s t h e t i c s o f t h e f e a t u r e sc o n s t i t u t i v e o f o b j e c t s a n d f o r m s ? A n a e s t h e t i c s o f t h is k i n d c e r t a i n l y e x i s t s a tt h e l e v e l o f a r t i s ti c p r a c t i c e : i t m a y c o n c e r n t h e a r c h i t e c t o n i c s a n d t e c t o n i c s o f at e m p l e , o r m o r e s i m p l y t h e o u t li n e o f a d r a w i n g o r t h e c o n t r a p u n t a l r u l e s o f ap i e c e o f m u s i c , a n d i t i s t o b e f o u n d i n t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s b y a n

a r ti st . H o w e v e r , f e w t e x t s s e t o ut a c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h e o r y o f t h emorphogenesiso f t h e constitutive elements o f a n a e s t h e ti c a l ly c o n n o t e d o b j e c t o r f o r m , a sdirect factors i n F e c h n e r s a n d W i t m e r s s e n s e , o r o f t h eultimate units ofdissection t o u s e a n e x p r e s s i o n f r o m Vo l k e l t . 2

A n d y e t , t h e e t y m o n o r t h e d i s c i p l i n a r y n a m e i t s e l f o f a e s t h e t i c s r e l a t e t o asensible experience w h i c h i s e m o t i o n a l l y c o n n o t e d a n d s t r u c t u r a l lyfounda-tional w i t h r e s p e c t t o a n y f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h etheoretical canon o fb e a u t i f u l f o r m s . 3

] In the con tem porary li t e ra tu re, the t e rm par t i cu la r goes under the name of t rope swith part ia l ly different mea nings. Cf. [Cam pbell 1990]; [W il l iams 1986].

2 (Spa t ia l) cons t i tu tive e lem ents a re , fo r exam ple , the impres s ion o f rec t l inear i ty, o fcurva tu re , o f pa ra l le l i sm, o f d ivergence f rom a s t ra igh t line , bu t even p r io r to these , theimp ression of boundaries , of punct ifo rm surfaces, t ra i ts , direct ions, and so on: cf .[Fechner 1871], [1876]. [Volkel t 1934] refers instead to psychicmoments f o r e x a m p l ea par t i cu la r shade o f red .

3 [Kant 1790].

Axiomathes. Nos. 1-2. 1998 pp. 169-196.


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For an aesthetics and a realist metaphysics, moreover, exis tentsin the propersense of the term are not merely individuals or objects, nor are they solelyforms. Instead, they are every fea tu reand every actual character is t ic note ,andtherefore also angles, sides, lines, curves, points, moments, and the directionsand the velocity that they convey; as well as secondary qual i t ieslike coloursand sounds, instances like crimson red or cobalt blue, a major third and aperfect fifth, but also clarity and darkness, textures and ter t iary character is t icnotes like the graspability, dangerousness, coldness and maleur of aestheticexperiences. To elaborate the argument even further, every existent in thestrong sense is characterized by its adject ival proper t iesand exists only as longas these properties last. 4

This type of quality is also at the basis of an aesthetics of geomet r i c v i sua lf o r m s - rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular, quadrangular, circular, and so

forth, s To be precise, however, an aesthet ics of par ticulars is primaril y anaesthet ics o f a spacewhich does not yet possess the defining features ofEuclidean space but, as von Allesch has well shown, is a space whichcomprises, f or example, tactile and kinaesthetic qualities, movement, direction,velocity, and therefore has the essent ia l ly dynamic s t ructureof aestheticphenomena of vision. 6

One thinks, for example, of the foregrounding of the lateral and rear planes(and therefore the perceptively subsequent ones) in Pi casso s paintings, or o fthe s imul taneous f l a she sof Depero s New York,of Delaunay s s imul t aneous lyopen windows ,of Marinetti s areomechanical poetry or, even more subtly, ofthe role played by stereo-kinetic effects in Duchamp s works (like Sad YoungMan on the Train , of 1911-12), effect s which were long studied in the

laboratory of experimental psychology, in particular by Benussi and Musatti. 7In truth, a sentiment Gef~hl) of this kind runs through most of the avant-garde art of late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century art. That the pr inc ip lesof form in painting are spheres, cylinders and cones, that every side of anobject, every surface, every shape has its centra l point o f d i rect ion,and that theperceiver is in ternal to th is processof the geometric vision of forms, is from

4 Examples of adjectival metaphysics are [Brentano 1928] ; [Peirce 1931-35];[Whitehead 1929]. A conception of this kind is also present in [Worringer 1918] and[Geiger 1911]. On the adjectival primitives of perception see [Alber tazzi 1997b],[1998c]. The contemporary cognitive sciences distinguish between low level properties(like T-, Y- and arrow-joins) and high level ones (like parallelism, symmetry) in whichthe former are embedded. See for example [Rouw, Kosslyn and Hamel 1997].

5 On experimental aesthetics, with particular regard to Fechner, Lipps and Witasek,see [Segal 1906].

6 [von Allesch 1910], [1931]; [Albertazzi 1998b].7 [Musatti 1924], [1975].


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C e z a n n e o n w a r d s a f e a t u r e d i s t i n c ti v e o f t h e e n t ir e c u b i s t m o v e m e n t a n dc h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e b u l k o f th e a r t o f t h a t p e r i o d , f u t u r i s m i n c l u d e d .

T h a t t h e m o v e m e n t o f g a l lo p i n g h o r s e s i st r iangular as i n B o c c i o n i , o r t h a tt h e c o l o u r y e l l o w h a sacute angles a n d t r i a n g u l a r s h a p e , a s i n K a n d i n s k ia c c o r d i n g t o a s c h e m a t i c p a t t e r n i n g o f l in e - s u r f a c e - c o l o u r r e l a ti o n s h i p s , t h a t i tc a n b e d e p i c t e d apoem of the r ight-anglet h a t t h e r e i s a n i n t e r n a l r e l a t i o nb e t w e e n i talics a n d t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f s e n s a t i o n s i n ra p i d s u c c e s s i o n , o r b e t w e e nbold a n d t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f i n t e n s e o n o m a t o p o e i a s : a l l t h e s e , t h e f u t u r i s tsm a i n t a i n e d , a r e a r t i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s w h i c h r e s t o r econst i tut ive featureso fp e r c e p t i v e e x p e r i e n c e .

T h e d i s t o r t io n s a n d r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e d y n a m i c p r o c e s s o f v i s io n i na e s t h e t i c s a r e n o t i n f a c t s u b j e c t i v e . T h e y a r e i n s t e a dphenomenolog ica l lyobjective i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y r e s t o r e t h emorphogenes i s o f the pa r t icu la r so f

a c t u a l a e s th e t i c e x p e r i e n c e . T h e y b r e a k w i t h W e s t e r n v i s u a l p r o j e c t i o n a n d l iea t t h e b a s i s o f aGestal thaf tes Sehent o e m p l o y a w e l l - k n o w n t it le , s

M o r e t h a n s y m b o l i s t o r a b st r a c t, a n a e s t h e t i c s o f t h i s t y p e i sexact. I tr e s t o r e s intensity simultaneitya n d act ion t o t h e e l e m e n t a r y f e a t u r e s o fp e r c e p t i v e f o r m sin the t ime o f presentnessa n d i t a d h e r e s t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f amechan ics o f spa ti a l o rm s .

T h e s c i e n t i f ic a p p a r a t u s u n d e r p i n n i n g t h i s a e s t h e t ic v i e w o f p a r t ic u l a r s - b et h e y p o i n t s , l in e s a n d s u r f a c e s , c o n e s , l i g h t , s h a d e o r c o l o u r - i s n o t s o l e l yt w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r e l a ti v i s t p h y s i c s , n o r t h e B e rg s o n i a n f l o w, a s t h e c r i t i c a ll i te r a t u r e h a s s o m e t i m e s a rg u e d , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e i t h a s f a i l e d t o g r a s p t h e r e a lp r o b l e m . 9 T h e s c i e n ti f ic a p p a r a t u s o f a n a e s t h e t i c s o f t h i s k i n d c o n s i s t s o f :

. c e r t a i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r i e s , l i k e L o t z e s t h e o r y o f l o c a l s ig -n s, t h em e t a p h y s i c s o f c o n t in u a d e v e l o p e d b y B r e n t a n o , E h r e n f e l s a n d S e l z, t h er e s e ar c h c o n d u c t e d b y S t u m p f ( L i p p s p r e d e c e s s o r in M u n i c h ) o n t h e o r ig i n

s Cf. [Weinhandl 1967]; [Lapo rte 1947], 243-56. On the conn ection between theBlue Reitermovement and the exac t aes the t ics of the Munich group , in par t icu la rHi ldebrand , Theodor Conrad and Dauber t , somewhat s imi la r op in ions have beenexpres sed by [Schuhman n 1997], 41-2 and [Scaram uzza 1976], 16. See also [De Ro sa1990] and [1994]. The expressive characteris t ics of the ter t iary quali t ies are alsodiscussed by Geiger.

9 For exam ple, I tal ian futurism s relationship with Bergso n and Jam es w as abso lutelyunequ ivocal , mainly because of the translat ions and interest of ma gica l pragma tists l ikePapini and Prezzolini . Cf. [Albertazzi 1997c]. As for the area of mid-E urop eaninfluence, here the connections were somewhat different . One thinks of the relat ionshipbe tween some ex ponents of Ges ta l t and Brentan ism, as in Hornbos te l .


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of spat ia l percept ion , and the wri t ings of Hu sser l (Lipps antagonis t ag ains th is wi l l) on space and the pass iv e syn thes is of antepredic a t ive e xper ie nce . ~in Gestalt t heo ry and expe r imen ta t ion : i n pa r t i cu l a r, Wer the imer fo r t het empora l s t ruc tu re s o f fo rms , Ka tz fo r co lou r, A l l e sch fo r non-Euc l ideanspace , Hom bos te l fo r i n t ra senso ry in teg ra tion , Brun swik fo r the pe rcep t ionof ob jec t s , Ka rdos fo r founda t iona l s tud ie s on co lou r and shade , Benuss ifo r t he ch roma t ic con t inua and a - senso ry pe rcep t ions o f fo rm, B t ih l e r fo rthe aes thet ic percept ion of s t ra ight l ines , c i rc les , curves and indices ofdirectiona li ty.I t

In shor t, the foundat ions of the aes thet ics of par t iculars l ie in a ser ies ofa n a l y s e s o f experimental phenomenologycha rac t e r i zed by complemen ta r i t yb e t w e e n t h eobjectual descriptiono f observables ( to u se K offka s exp res s ion ) ,

wh ich had i t s fu l c rum in Mun ich aes the t i c s , andpsycho physicalexperimentationin the labora tory.

T h e geometry of planest ha t gove rned the decompos i t i on o f images incub i sm - so t ha t an ob jec t d id no t have one s ing le abso lu t e fo rm bu t a s manyfo rm s a s i t had p l anes i n the pe rc ep t ive r eg ion , a s exempl i f i ed by P icas so spain tings 12 - the in dividua l parts orelements of pu re v i sua l pe rcep t ion , t helogic and syntax of t he presentations of intuitive for ma n a l y s e d b y H i l d e b ra n din h is b oo k on the pro blem of form in sculpture , ~3 or themodes of visionl ikelook ing f rom c lose up o r f rom a d i s t ance a s r econs t ruc t ed in t hesimultaneityand contiguity of the par ts in the p ic tor ia l w hole : these , in effec t , a re theex te rna l iza t ions o f a base p r inc ip l e o f phenom eno log ica l expe r i ence , na me lytha t o f thedependentand non independentpa r t s o f t he who le s o f pe rcep t ion .

Som e o f P i cas so s pa in t ings ( fo r ex amp le h i sSeated Womanof 1919)re s to re t he va r ious p i eces o f the f i gu re , s een in c lo se -up , andf i t one to ano the rin the i r par t ia l ly re-ent rant and par t ia l ly prot ruding shapes according to ageometry of pa r ti cu la r s w hereb y they f l a tt en , cu rve , p ro trude , and r eced efo l lowing an order of representative reconstructiont ha t may d i f f e r f rom theoriginal perceptive orderin the i r cons t i tu t ion . 14 This i s in fa c t a chara cter is t ic

l0 [Brentano 1928]; [Lotze 18 59]; [Ehrenfels 1985 ]; [Stumpf 1873]; [Husserl 1900-1], [1966b]. O n Brentano s position cf. [Albertazzi 1997a].

i1 [Wertheimer 1922-33]; [Katz 1911]; [Hornbostel 1925]; [Allesch 1931];[Brunswik 1934], [1935]; [Kardos 1934 ]; [Benussi 1922-23].

t2 [Laporte 1947], 243.13 [Hildebrand 190 5]. On the relationship betw een Hildebrand and the Vienna

phenomenological circle, and in particular w ith Daubert, see [Schuhmann 1997], 40.14 On P ica sso s painting of. [Leyton 1992], ch. 8.


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o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e representat ion t h a t B e n u s s i f i r s t s h o w e d i n h i se x p e r i m e n t s . 15 S o I th i n k , s o I p a i n t , r a n D e p e r o s f a m o u s d i c t u m .

M o r e o v e r , t h earcs o f a c i r c l e s h a r e w i t h a s t r a i g h t l i n e t h e f e a t u r e t h a t a l lt h e i r par t s m a y o v e r l a p , o r m o r e g e n e r a l l y f r o m amechan ica l p o i n t o f v i e w,t h a t e a c h p a r t m a y b eshif ted o n t o t h e w h o l e . T h e v i s u a l g i v e n n e s s o fp r o j e c t i v e c i r c l e s Richtkreisen), w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d t o s t r a i g h t l i n e s i n o u rf r o n t o p a r a l l e l p l a n e i s a l s o r e c o g n i z e d b y a p o s i t i v i s t l i k e H e l m h o l t z . 16 B u t t h et h e o r e t i c a l p r o b l e m t h a t o p p o s e s a p o s i t i v i s t t o a p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t i o no f m e c h a n i c s r e s i d e s i n t h e t y p e o fexplanat iong i v e n t o t h e s e p h e n o m e n a . 17 As h i f t o r o v e r l a p o f t h is k i n d , f r o m a p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w, i s n o ta s c e r t a i n a b l e s o l e l y b y m e a n s o fmeasurementa n d deduct ive conchzsions.It isi n s t e a d a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p e r t i n e n t t o t h etype o f v i s u a l p a r t i c u l a r, a n d a s s u c h i tis immed iate ly perceivableb y t h e o rg a n i s m .

I n f a c t , f o r t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w, w i t h i t s s t r o n gcognitivec o n n o t a t i o n s , Is e v e r y p a r t i c u l a r h a s i ts o w nbehav iour w h i c h a s s u m e s p a r t l yd i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o r c e f i e l d a n d t h e c o n f i g n r a t i o n s i n w h i c hthe la t te r i s manifest. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e p e r c e p t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f th e e m p t ydis tance b e t w e e n t w o p o i n t s d i f f e r s f r o m t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f as t ra ight l ined r a w nb e t w e e n t w o p o i n t s , a n d a l s o f r o m t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s i z e , o r b e t t e r t h ethickness,o f t h e t w o l i m i t p o i n t s , g i v e n t h a t w h e n a p o i n t - t h ein ternal ly mostconc i se fo rm ,a s K a n d i n s k y c a l l e d i t - h a s t h i c k n e s s i t a l s o a c q u i r e s aground.O r, b e c a u s e o fassimila t ion p h e n o m e n a , i f a s q u a r e is p l a c e d b e t w e e n t w os q u a r e s e q u a l l y l a rg e r t h a n i t, a n d i f it is t h e n p l a c e d b e t w e e n t w o s q u a r e se q u a l l y s m a l l e r t h a n i t , t h e s q u a r e a p p e a r s t o b e s m a l l e r i n t h e f i r s t c a s e t h a n i nt h e s e c o n d . T h e s a m e i s t r u e o f c i rc l e s .

F i n a l l y, t h e t w o i d e n t i c a l s i d es o f a n a n g l e s e e m t o b e o f d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h s i nr e l a t i o n t o t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e m a n d b e t w e e n p o i n t s d r a w n c l o s e t o t h e i re n d s , b e c a u s e t h e p o i n t f u n c t i o n s a s aboundary o f t h e wh ole . 19

M o r e s i m p l y, c o n s i d e r a c y l i n d e r s e en f r o m t h e i n s i d e a s c o n c a v e o r s e e nf r o m t h e o u t s i d e a s c o n v e x ; a p r o b l e m t h a t a l s o o b s e s s e d F e c h n e r a n d o f w h i c h

~5 On this distinctio n see [Benussi 1925].16 Acc ording to the the ory o f theGeradheitschwelle,Bi.ihler would later define a

straight l ine as a c ircle with only one radius of m agnitude.17 [Btih ler 1913].~8 Th e phenom enolog ical object , in fact, is always ~v en con tent-w ise, and is

therefore incom plete or part ial ly absen t . Cf. [Husserl 1900-1], Th ird Log icalInvest igat ion.

~9 Man y othese asp ects have bee n analysed inter al ia by Lipps. Cf. [La ska 1890];[MGller-Lyer 1896]; [Lipps 1897].


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a c l a s si c e x a m p l e i s N e c k e r s c u b e , w h e r e t h e k e y f e a t u r e s i s t h e r o l e o fang lesa s c o n s t i t u t i v e e l e m e n t s . 2

T h e s e a s p e c t s a r e c l e a r l y d i s p l a y e d b y t h e p a t t e r n s k n o w n a sopt icalil lusions, a f a c t w e l l k n o w n s i n c e a n t i q u i t y a n d w h i c h i n t e c t o n i c s l e d t o as e r i e s o f correct ions - l ik e t h e e n t a s is p l a c e d a t 1 / 3 o f t h e h e i g h t o f t h e d o r i cc o l u m n - i n o r d e r c o u n t e r a c t t h e e f f e c t s o f th i s s p e c i f i c t y p eof pe rcep t iveregular i ty a r i s in g f r o m t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s i n w h i c h t h epar t iculars a p p e a r a n dt he fo rces o f t h e v i s u a l f i e l d .

I n o t h e r w o r d s , a t th e b a s is o f a p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a e s t h e t i c s o f p a r t i c u l a r st h e r e a l s o l i e t h einternalizations o f p r i n c i p l e s t h a t b e l o n g t o t h em e c h a n i c s o fan intuitive physics.I n t h e p h e n o m e n a l v i s u a l f i e l d , i n f a c t , t h e r e a r ep lacesigns a n d direct ion s igns or f l igh t pointsc o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h eplace posi t ionso fv a r i o u s k i n d s o f p a r t i c u l a r s , l i k e p o i n t s , l i n e s , s u r f a c e s , a n g l e s , c u r v e s , p a t t e r n s ,

f i l l e d w i t h p h e n o m e n a l c o n t e n t s o f s h a d e , c o l o u r , d a r k n e s s , b r i g h t n e s s a n dt e x t u r e o f p a r t ic u l a r s . F r o m t h e v a r i o u s c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f th e s e p a r t i c u l a r so r i g i n a t e t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o fp lace , o r i en ted fea tu rea n d m o v e m e n tt h a t l i e a t t h eb a s i s o f o u r p e r c e p t i o n s . 2

O n e o f t h e t as k s o f a e s t h e t i c s is t h e r e f o r e t o b r i n g t o a w a r e n e s s t h epr imi t ivefac to r s o r par t iculars t h a t c o n v e y t h ev i sua l fo rce s o f d i r e c t i o n , r e l a t io n a n de x p r e s s i o n . 22

T h e v i s u a l f ie l d i n f a c t t a k e s t h e f o r m o f asystem of posi t ions wi th acont inuous order ing - tha t i s , o f a homogeneous se r ie s o f pos i t ions Or te ) -w h i c h c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d a c c o r d i n g t o s t r u c t u r a l l a w s a s asys tem of p laces ,a l s o i n H u s s e r l s s e n s e . 23

O p e r a t i n g i n t h e v i s u a l f i e l d a r e a p r i n c i p l e o fcohesion w h e r e b y a s u r f a c e

l i es u p o n a n o b j e c t i f a n d o n l y i f t h e y a r e c o n n e c t e d , a p r i n c i p l e o fcontactw h e r e b y s u r f a c e s m o v e t o g e t h e r o n l y i f t h e y a r e c o n n e c t e d , a n d a p r i n c i p l e o fcont inui ty w h e r e b y a n o b j e c t f o l l o w s e x a c t l y o n e s p a t i o - t e m p o r a l l y c o n n e c t e dt r a j e c t o r y . 2 4

20 The impor tance of the concavi ty and conve xi ty of l ines , o f junc tures and angles i sa l so of g rea t re levance for the contemporary theory of v i s ion . Cf . [Marr 1982] ;[Biedermann 1985].

2~ Place signs are the minimal elements of spat ial perception relat ive to tact i lesensat ions, whiledirection signs or ig ina te f rom muscular sensa t ion and denote theminimal spa t ia l e lement of conn ec t ion among the s igns of p lace , thereby g iv ing r i se tothe sensat ion of mo vem ent. Cf. [Uexkti l l 1920], [1956 ]; [Albertazzi 1998 b].

22 A real is t metaph ysics of this kind originated in Brentan o, and befo re him in[Herb art 1946b].

23 Cf. [H usse rl 1966a], [1 966 b].24 [Eilan et al . 1993], 103. As regard s paint ing, Balla and Russo lo ach ieved a stat ic

reproduct ion o f mot ion .


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THE AESTHETICS OF PARTICULARS A CASE OF INTUITIVE MECHANICS 175

Wi t h i n t h e v i s u a l f i e l d t h e q u a l i t i e s t h a t s a t u r a t e i t m u s textend themselves,f i ll i n g t h e f ie l d i n u n i f o r m m a n n e r w i t h o u t q u a l i t a t iv e f i t s a n d s t a r ts . T h e s e a r en o t y e t q u a l i t i e s o f s p a t i a lextension,b u t o f extensity Extensitiit),t o u s e a t e r mf r o m B r e n t a n o ' s m e t a p h y s i c s o f c o n t i n u a , z5

B o c c o n i a s k e d h o w o n e c a n r e p r e s e n t , i n t h e m o s t a b s o l u t e s e n s e ,t h e f a l t o fa leaf. T h e f a c t is t h a t p a i n ti n g s a r e o f t e n p i c t o r ia l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f a c t i o n sr e a l i z e d t h r o u g hthe phase s of a uni tary s troboscopic m ovem ent ,a s A n a h e i ma c u t e l y o b s e r v e d , z6 T h e e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e o f a n a e s t h e t i c m e c h a n i c s o fp h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l t y p e t h e r e f o r e c o n s i s ts i n t h e to p o l o g i c a lelast ici ty o fp a r t i c u l a r s a n d i n c e r t a i ndiffuse( i . e . p r e - g e s t a l t ) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e q u a l i t i e sr e p r e s e n t e d , w h i c h a r e r o u n d , a n g l e d o r u n c i n a t e a n dtherefore i n s i g n i f i c a n t ,c o m m o n , e l e g a n t , n o b l e , a n d s o f o r t h . 27

2. Philosophy, psychology and psychologism

I n 1 8 97 T h e o d o r L i p p s w r o t e aRaumaes the t iko n t h e e l e m e n t a r y s p a t i a li m p r e s s i o n s , i n a s ty l e d e s c r i b e d b y U t i tz a s c o n s i s ti n g o f p a r t i c u l a r i ti e s a n ds u b t l e d is t i n c ti o n s , i n w h i c h h e a d d r e s s e d t h e p r o b l e m o f a e s t h e t i c s f r o m a

foundat iona l p o i n t o f v i e w a n d w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o p e r c e p t i v ei l lu s i o n s . 28 T h e a n a l y t i c a n d p a i n s - t a k i n g n a t u r e o f L i p p s ' o b s e r v a t i o n sa t t r a c te d B t i h l e r ' s c r i ti c i s m t h a t h i s b o o k t r e a t e d t h e w h o l e o f p s y c h o l o g y a sn o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a m a s s o f s u b t l e i n d i v i d u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s . 29

D e s p i t e t h e a c c u s a ti o n o f p s y c h o l o g i s m b r o u g h t a g a i n s t L i p p s ' m e t h o d , i t

d i s p l a y s a f e a t u r e p e r t a i n i n g t o t h eorigins o f p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l r e s ea r c h a n dw h i c h w a s s h a r e d , f o r e x a m p l e , b y a l m o s t a ll t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e s c h o o l o fB r e n t a n o : th e c o m b i n a t i o n o f s e m i n a r s o n p h i l o s o p h y w i t h s e m i n a r s o np s y c h o l o g y w h i c h l e d , a l m o s t w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , t o th e o p e n i n g o f l a b o r a t o r i e so f e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y.3

25 [Brentano 1907], [1928].26 [Arn heim 1986].27 On the diffuse or plast ic quali t ies of thepregestaltensee [Cornelius 1900]; on

emot ive conno ta t ionGefiihl)as the qua l i ty of a com plex see [Kru eger 1953] .28 [Lipp s 1885]; [Utitz 1912], 215; [Bfihler 1913]. On Lipp s see [Ansch titz 1915];

[Zweig 1972]. On the relat ionship between Brentano and Lipps see [Brentano 1907],repr. [1979], 125-31; 133-6; 241-3, and [Lipps 1987], 269. On Lipps ' b ibl iography cf .[Schuhmann and B okhov e 1991].

29 [Biihler 1913], 34.30 [Bre ntan o 1874], 30; [Ma rty 1897], 79; [Stu m pf 1907].


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THE AESTHETICS OF PARTICULARS A CASE OF INTUITIV E MECHANICS 177

of apprehension o f t h e a e s t h e t ic o b j e c t d e t e r m i n e i t sexpression Ausdruck); ap o s i t i o n w h i c h w a s f i e r c e ly c r it i c is e d b y Vo l k e l t . A w e a k e r v e r s i o n o f L i p p s 't h e o r y, a lt h o u g h d e v e l o p e d w i t h i n t h e s a m e f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e , w a sp r o p o u n d e d b y W i t m e r , w h o i n v e s t i g a te d t h e p r o b l e m o f e x p r e ss i o n .3 8

I n o t h e r w o r d s , f o r L i p p s v i su a l p e r c e p t i o n i s t h e p r o d u c t o facts o f presen-tation w h i c h d i s p l a y f e a t u r e s o fcognitive and emotional completion o f t h e o r i -g i n a l m a t e r i a l s u p p l i e d b y s e n s e i m p r e s s i o n s , b y t h e a c t i t s e l f ; a c o n c e p t i o nw h i c h c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e s t h e G r a z S c h o o l ' stheory of production, a s L i p p sw r o t e t o M e i n o n g i n 1 9 0 5 . 39 I t i s n o c o i n c i d e n c e , i n f a c t , t h a t a k e y f e a t u r e o fL i p p s ' a e s t h e t ic s o f s p a c e w a s i ts d e t a il e d a n d a l m o s t o b s e s s i v e a n a l y s i s o f th eo p t i c a l i l l u s io n s t h a t d e r iv e f r o m t h ebehaviour o f p a r t i c u la r s i n t h e p e r c e p t i v ef i e l d o f th e v i s i o n . T h e s e i l l u s i o n s w e r e o f c e n t r a l c o n c e r n t o t h e r e s e a r c h o f t h eM e i n o n g i a n s a n d o n e o f t h e p r i n c ip a l t h e m e s o f p o s it i v i st l i t e ra t u r e . F o r t h a t

m a t t e r , i t w a s H u s s e r l w h o f i r s t a rg u e d t h a t p h e n o m e n o l o g y w a s a f o r m o fp o s i t i v i s m . 4

A t G r a z , B e n u s s i i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l n a t u r e a n d t h e o n t o l o g i c a ls t a tu s o f t h e p h e n o m e n a o f p e r c e p t i v e i l lu s i o n - o r , a s h e p r e f e r r e d t o c al l it , t h ep h e n o m e n a o f th ea-sensory perception of form - a n d h e s h o w e d t h e t w o f o l di n n e r s t r u c tu r e o f t h e a c t o f p r e s e n t a t i o n . A l s o p r e s e n t i n p r e s e n t i n g w e r emeaninghd) cognitive traits w h e r e b y t h e c o m p l e x o f s t im u l i w a s g r a s p e d

w i t h o u t t h e d i r e c t i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e r e c e p t o r s , i n c o n t r a s t , f o r e x a m p l e , w i t ht h e c a s e o f p h e n o m e n a o f c h r o m a t i c c o n t r a s t. E v e r y p e r c e p t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , i s t h ep r o d u c t o f b o t h external conditions ( l i k e t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n c l a r i t y b e t w e e nf i g u r e a n d g r o u n d , t h e p a r t i c u l a r b r i g h t n e s s o f a c o l o u r , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h es e c o n d a r y l i n e s in th e M i i l l e r - L y e r il l u s i o n , e t c . ) a n dinternal conditions,

a s s i m i l a t iv e o r c o n n e c t i v e . T h i s i s e v i d e n c e d b y p a i n t i n g s i n w h i c h w e s e ec i r c u l a r o b j e c t s e v e n t h o u g h i n t e r m s o f p e r s p e c t i v e t h e y a r e a c t u a l l y e l l ip t i c a l,

characterial timbre, as wel l as momentary Stimmungen and objectivities ofconsciousness Bewufltseinlage). For example , when an energe t ic charac te r i sconf ronted by a f igure which admi ts to more than one mode of apprehens ion , i tapprehends i t from the po in t o f v iew of energy.

3s In W itmer, m echanical aesthet ics is less dom inant; that is , i t remains suc h in l inesbut less so in triangles and zig-zag l ines. Em pathy b ecom es a fusionVerschmelzung) o ffigural quali t ies , an expression of the f igure more than a free expanding or an innerdoing.

39 Cf. Lipps ' let ter to Meino ng of 30.3.19 05, no. 38 39 in the Gra z A rchive. In thisle t te r L ipps dec la res tha t Benuss i has once aga in comp le te ly misunde rs tood a l thoughhe conf i rms what he seeks to deny. See a l so [Benuss i 1914] and Be nuss i ' s

handw rit ten notes on Lipps ' 1897 text .40 Cfr. [Hus serl 1950].


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] 8 LILIANA ALBERTAZZI

o r b y t h ea-modalp h e n o m e n :~ , , f p e r c e p t io n a n a l y s e d b y K a n i z s a . 4 j B e n u s s i ' sp e r s o n a l c o p y o f L i p p s ' b o o k , m t},,~ a e s t h e t i c s o f s p a c e a n d p e r c e p t i v e i l l u s i o n sb e a r s s o m e a n n o t a t i o n s i n i t: , m ~ ,r ~.in s w h i c h t e s t i f y t o h i s d o u b t s c o n c e r n i n ga e s t h e t i c m e c h a n i c s a n d t h e I J ,~ :,,r 7 o f p r o d u c t i o n . B e n u s s i d i d n o t h a v e a h i g ho p i n i o n o f L i p p s ' w o r k , i n I';J,~ ) : m 0 a c c u s e d h i m o f r e s o r t i n g t o u n c o n s c i o u sp e r c e p t i o n s a n d a s s o c i a t io n i s i j, ,, ;i ti on s in h is t h e o r y o f p e r c e p t i o n Y

L ip ps ' the ory a l so re f lec t.~ f I~ ,. theor y o f theformal qua l i t i esd e v e l o p e d b yM e i n o n g ' s f r i e n d , H a n s C or ~ ,- li ,, ~. a n o t h e r a u t h o r s u s p e c t e d o f p s y c h o l o g i s man d w ho se l e c tu r e s w e r e a l lc .t ,q l,; j b y a l l t h e M u n i ch p he n o m e no l o g i s t s . 43C o m e l i u s ' s t h e o r y p r o v i d e d i h,: t ,: ~ is f o r a m o r p h o g e n e t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f t h eexpress iveq u a l i t i e s i n w h i c h ~ m f . d i s c e r n s a t h e o r y o f e m p a t h y b a s e d o nex p e r im en t a l an a ly s i s o f a c t'~ l; li rl ly t y p e s o f p l a s t i c a n d d i f f u s e d q u a l i t i e s(gestal thafler)o f th e w h o l e . 'l'h i,~ h e o r y, w h i c h w a s t a k e n u p b y M e t z g e r , a l s oapp ea r s i n P f~ inde r ' s w or k . 44

F i n a l l y, L i p p s ' t h e o r y b c m ',; l ~ i n t s o f r e s e m b l a n c e w i t h t h eGanzheits-psychologieo f K r u e g e r ( w h ~ r ~ t~ ,li ed u n d e r L i p p s i n M u n i c h ) , S a n d e r a n dVo lke l t . 45Ganzheitspsycholog/,,l ~ i d p a r t i c u l a r l y c l o s e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r o l e a n dp r o p e r t i e s o f t h e n o n - in d e p c ~ 0 ~ ,~ l p a r ts a n d l i n k a g e s(Gefi ige) o f G e s t a l tp e r c e p t i v e w h o l e s , a n d w a s , l~ l ~ ,~ le ly c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e d o m i n a n c e o f t h eG e s t a l t w h o l e s o n w h i c h t h e c l ; ,~ i c ~ l t h e o r y c o n c e n t r a t e d . I n d e e d , a l a rg e p a r tof L ip ps ' bo ok i s dev ote d to tn~,~*~.~~l~gical th eo ry . 46

T h e s e t h r e e c a s e s j u s t d is c~ l;~ ,~ :d r e l a te t o w h a t w e m a y c a l l t h ecognit ives i d e o fGestal tpsychologie.T hi .~ w ~ s t h e v i e w t a k e n b y E r n s t B l o c h , y e t a n o t h e ro f L i p p s ' p u p i l s , w h e r e a s G e i/4 ,~ l' w ~ ts a l w a y s o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t i f a e s t h e t i c s i s

41 For exam ple in L ascuola di At, m, di Raffaello.Cf. [Kanizsa 1991] .42 Ben uss i ' s c r i tic i sms cent red ,m the fac t that presenta t ions of mo vem ent a re

a t tached to the conf igura t ions g ivt 'u iu percept ion which , in mnes t ic presenta t ion , wou ldalter the ini t ial configura tions. ' l 'h~. t 'h:mge o f shape in the M iil ler-Ly er i l lusion, forexamp le , w ould be due to the p l 'es t' ll ll ll i~n o f a movem ent wh ich " com es out o f i t se l f o rexp and s," "w hich a dvan ces to the t~xl~,l 'i~r from the centre." C f. [Ben ussi 1905], [19 14],445-7 . M oreov er. in h is copy ~1 ' I .i l~ps , boo k, Benuss i m arks ' ' a longs ide L ipps 'obs erva tions on sym pathy as an IIt,,~lll~qic sentim ent (p. 7) an d '? ' a long side h is claimthat the erec ting o f a colum n is .~t,~,n not w ith the eye s by with though t and theimagination (p. 7) .

43 Cf. [Roll ing er 1991].44 Cf . [M etzger 1941] , where hL~ t 'r l l lc i ses Lip ps ' theory o f pro jec t ion (propou nded in

1907), chap. 2, 9; [Pf'~nder 1931)1.45 Cf. [Sa nder 1926a ], [1926b1, I I~f~21 and [San der, V olke lt 19 62]. Cf. atso Vo lkelt

[1930].46 In part icular see chaps. 5-6.


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a s c i e n c e oriented towards the object,t h e access route t o a e s t h e t i c s i s t h r o u g hp s y c h o l o g y,47 a n o p i n i o n a l s o s h a r e d b y M e i n o n g . 48

L i p p s t h e o r y, i n f a c t , s u f f e r e d t h e s a m e f a t e a s t h e G r a z S c h o o l . F i e r c e l yc r i t i c is e d b y B i i h l e r i n 1 9 1 3 , a n d t h e n d i s c r e d i t e d b y M e t z g e r , a m o n g s t o t h e r s ,h i s i d e a s w e r e a t t a c k e d o n t h e b a s is o f tw o o f th e f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s o f t h eM e i n o n g i a n s o n th e g r o u n d s t h a t:

1 . t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f f o r m i s o f a - s e n s o r yauflersinlich) p r o v e n a n c e , s o t h a tt h e t h e o r y e s s e n t i a l ly i n v o l v e dpsychophysical mosaic depiction;

2 . i t w a s b a s e d o n t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t s t i m u l i a r e c o n s t a n t . 49

3. The mechanical foundation of aesthetics

T h e t h e o r e t ic a l c o r e o f L i p p s ' a e s t h e t i c s i s s u f f i c i e n t l y in t u i ti v e : t h ebearerso f t h e mo de o f aesthetic behaviour aret h e spatial configurations representedinar t i s t i c f o r m s l ik e t h e c o l u m n s o f G r e e k t e m p l e s o r t h e o g i v a l a r c h e s a n dc r u c i f o r m l e a f - s h a p e s o f c l a s si c a l G o t h i c .

I n o t h e r w o r d s , L i p p s m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e v i s u a lperception o f f o r m s i sw o v e n t o g e t h e r b y direct presentations o f natural type mech anischeVorbilder) o f p e r c e i v e d f o r m , a n d t h emodalities o f p e r c e i v e d o b j e c t s a r er o o t e d i n o u r e x p e r i e n c e o fphysical force so f m o v e m e n t . 5

R e p r e s e n t a t io n c a n t h e r e f o re b e c o n c e i v e d a s acontinuumo f f o r m s t h a t c a nb e e x p e r i e n c e d a t r e s t o r i n m o t i o n , i n c h a n g e o r i n s ta s is , i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e

v a r i o u s m o d e s o f p r e s e n t a t io n o f o b j e c t s i n a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e . T h u s t h enaturalspace o f L i p p s ' a e s t h e t i c s i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h ehomogeneous ser ies ofpositions a l re a d y m e n t i o n e d . T h e m e c h a n i c s u n d e r l y i n g th i s s p a c e a r e m a i n l ya n a l y s e d i n t h e f ie l dof pe rceptive illusions,i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e o p t i c a l i l l u s i o n s t ow h i c h , a s s a i d , h is b o o k o f 1 8 9 7 w a s l a rg e l y d e v o t e d .

T h e r e w a s w i d e d e b a t e o n o p t i c a l il l u s io n s a t t h e t u r n o f th e c e n t u r y, i n b o t hp s y c h o l o g y a n d p h i l o s o p h y. T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e t o p i c r e s t e d o n t h e f a c t t h a ti t i n v o l v e d q u e s t i o n s n o t o n l y o fvisual perceptionb u t a l s o o fontology: W h a tt y p e o f object i s a p e r c e p t i v e i l l u s i o n ? W h a t s o r t o fexistenced o e s i t h a v e ? I s i ta founding o b j e c t o r a dependento b j e c t ? W h a t i s i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t hsensory

47 Cf. [ Ge iger 1928], viii.4s Cf. [M einong 1904]. On this see [Albe rtazzi 1995], [199 6b].49 El. [Biihler 1913 ], 28-9.50 Cf. [Eh len 1914]. For a s imilar point of view cf . [L ewin 1926]. Biihler further

cri t icised Lipps fo r fai ling toprove tha t our corporea l mechanics a re involved in op t ica lillusions. Cf. [Btihler 1913], 37.


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con tent Ge hal t ) 5~a n d a e s t h e t i c sen t imen t Gef i ih l ) ?T h e s e w e r e q u e s t i o n sm u c h d i s c u s s e d b y t h e B r e n t a n i s t s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y in t h e s c h o o l o f M e i n o n g ,b u t t h e y w e r e a l s o a d d r e s s e d b y M u n i c h a e s t h e ti c s , a b o v e a l l in t h e w o r k o fA t o y s F i s c h e r. 52 M o r e i n g e n e r a l , th e y a r e q u e s t i o n s w h i c h c o n c e r n t h et h e o r yo f r e p r e s e n t a t i o na n d t h e c o g n i t iv e c o n t e n t i n th e f o r m s o f c o m p l e t i o n o fs e n s o r y p e r c e p t i o n . 53 Wi t h i n t h e G r a z s c h o o l , W i t a s e k , w h o d e v e l o p e d a t h e o r ys i m i l a r t o L i p p s ' o n t h e c o n c e p t o fj u d g e m e n t o f c o m p a r is o n ,e n d o r s e d h i sa n a l y si s o f c o m e d y a n d t r a g ed y b u t d i s p u t e d h i s n o t i o n o fc o n s e n s u s as an e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r th e a e s t h e t i c j u d g m e n t . L i p p s , f o r h i s p a r t , c r i ti c i s e dWi t a s e k ' s c o n t e n t i o n t h a taes the t i c s a t i s f ac t iona t t a c h e s i t s e l f , a s i f i t w e r e aTa c h e n s p i e l e r e i ,t o j u d g e m e n t s a n d t o ' o b j e c t i v e s . '5 4

T h e f i n a l w o r d o n t h e o r i g in o f o p t i c a l - g e o m e t r i c il l u s io n s , o f w h i c h t h e r ee x i s t a w i d e v a r i e t y, h a s n o t y e t b e e n s a id , s i n c e t h e d e b a t e s t il l c o n t i n u e s i n t h e

c o g n i t i v e s c ie n c e s . B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , t h e t w o p r e v a i l i n g h y p o t h e s e s t o d a y a r et h o s e t h at o n c e c o u n t e r p o s e d H e l m h o l t z a n d K o f f k a , a nd w h i c h h a v e b e e nd e v e l o p e d b y G r e g o r y a n d G i b s o n , t h e p r o p o n e n t s r e s p e c t i v e ly o f a t h e o r y o fp e r c e p t i o n a s h y p o t h e s i sa n d o f e c o l o g i c a l p e r c e p t i o n .To d a y , L i p p s ' t h e o r yw o u l d p r o b a b l y b e r e g a r d e d a s a t h e o r y o f t h e f o r m e r t y p e . 55

L i p p s ' t h e s i s o n t h e n a t u r e o f o p t i c a l i ll u s i o n s m i r r o r s t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f h isa r c h i t e c t o n i c s , g i v e n t h a t e v e r yt e n d e n c y a c t i n g i n t h e p e r c e p t i v e f i e l d o f t h ef o r m s c a n o n l y b e t h o u g h t t o g e t h e r w i t h ac o u n t e r - t e n d e n c y,a n d b o t h a c ts i m u l t a n e o u s l ya n d i n the sam e spa t i a l p l ac e . 56T h e s e t w o t e n d e n c i e s a r e n e v e rs i m u l t a n e o u s l y f i l l e d ,s o t h at e v e r y f o r m o r e l e m e n t o f f o r m t h a t c o m e s a b o u t a sa r e s u l t o f t h is o p p o s i t i o n i s t h e o b j e c t o f o p p o s i n g a c t iv i ti e s w h i c h p r o d u c e

5t By 'aesthet ic content 'Gehalt) is meant not mental contentInhalt) but the fac to rthe object ive si tuat ion, as opposed to the form with which they (facts , s i tuat ions) areinvested. In metaphysics, from Herbart to Fechner, they correspond to the spatial ,tempo ral primit ives, and to primit ives l ike colours, l ines and sounds.

52 Cf. [F ische r 1907], 122.53 Benuss i , fo r exam ple , d i s tinguished be tween percept ive and menta l p resen ta t ion ,

and their possible mixed forms, in order to s tress two different aspects both const i tut iveof the f inal presentat ive con tent of the perce ptive act . Cf. [Benu ssi 1925].

[Lipps 1898], [1901a], [1905]; [W itasek 1904]. Lipps instead speaks o f thesentim ent o f value Wertgefiihl)possessed by someth ing objec tua l which has i t se l fe n c o u n t e r entgegentrin) the charac te r o f aes the t ic rea l i ty. On the concept o f'ob jec t ive ' c f . in f ra no te 58 .

55 Lipps in fac t accepted Hel rnol tz ' s hypothes i s o f unconsc ious p ercept ions . Wi tm ersought to def ine the na ture of these obscure e lements of consc iousness asreproductivefac to r s o r contents which produce the apprehension of the aesthetic objec tasexpression,placing them in relat ion to the f igural quali t ies .

56 Cf. [Ben ussi 1913], [1925]. On this see [Albertazzi 1998b].


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pe rcep t ive i l l u s ions . The l ack o f pe rcep t ive i l l u s ions by con t r a s t i nd i ca t e s t ha tt h e state p r o d u c e d b y t h e t w o t e n d e n c i e s i s i n e q u i l i b r i u m : 7

L i p p s ' t h e o r y o f th e j u d g e m e n t o f c o m p a r i s o n r e s e m b l e s t h e ' c l a s s i c a l 't h e o r y d e v e l o p e d b y t h e G r a z s c h o o l , n a m e l y t h a t o p t i c a l i l l u s io n s d o n o t a r i s ei n t h e p r i m a r y p r o c e ss e s o f a p p r e h e n s i o n b u t i n s u c c e s s i v e p e r c e p t iv ed i s p l a c e m e n t s f o u n d e d i n p r e s e n t a t i o n s . B y m e a n s o f s u c c e s s i v e c o m p a r i s o n sthe p re sen t a t i ve imag e o f t he f i r st s t imu lus i s t r anspo r t ed i n to t he pe rcep t ion o fthe s econd , so t ha t t he ma te r i a l o f t he s ensa t i on i s a lway s i n some w ays t ruc tu red o r o rde red .

In th i s s ense L ipps ' t heo ry a l so c lo se ly r e semble s - and d i f f e r s f rom - t ha td e v e l o p e d b y B e n u s s i , a l t h o u g h h e a l s o a n a l y s e s t h e o n t o l o g i c a l t y p e o f t h eobjectivities produ ced , 58 t he ob j ec t o f t he tw o p re sen t a t i ons and , un l ike L ipps ,c o n s i d e r s t h e i l l u si o n s o f j u d g e m e n t t o b e n o t e v e n t u a l i t i e s o r e v e n t s o f c o m -

pa r i son bu t inadequate perceptions o f form ,a n d t h e r e f o r e d u e t o a nevent o fpresen ta t ion : 9In o the r words , t he ques t i on i s whe the r pe rcep t ive i l l u s ions a r ei m m e d i a t e l y g i v e n i n p e rc e p t i o n o r w h e t h e r t h e y a r e t h e o u t c o m e o f s u b s e q u e n tcom par i son . L ip ps ' pos i t i on i s t ha t t he mechan ica l i n t e rp re t a t i on o f ae s the t i c s i sbased on successive apperceptions,a pos i t i on a l so sha red by t he I t a l i anBon aven tu ra , wh o inves t i ga t ed t he s ame ques t i ons . 6 Be nu ss i ' s pos i t i on i s morecomplex , i n t ha t he ma in t a in s t ha t i f i t i s t r ue t ha t , a s amat te r o f fac t ,al l ourp e r c e p t i v e j u d g e m e n t sin the durationa r e b a s e d o n j u d g e m e n t s , a s amat te r o fprinciple o n e c a n n o t e x c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i li t y o f e v e n t u a l i t i e s o f p r e s e n t a t io n .

Indeed , t he t op i c a s a who le and t he a rgumen t s o f i t s i nd iv idua l po in t s a s socom plex t ha t i t i s s ti l l d i f f i cu l t t o cons t rue i n i ts de t a i l s . I t is t he r e fo re com es a sn o s u r p r i se t o f i n d th a t L i p p s a n d B e n u s s i s o m e t i m e s c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e s a m eth ings . Howeve r, i t i s i ndub i t ab l e t ha t L ipps ' a e s the t i c s o f space can be r ead a sone s t age i n t he deba t e on t he pe rcep t ive i l l u s ions wh ich i nvo lved pos i t i v i s tp s y c h o l o g y a n d t h e t w o p r i n c ip a l s c h o o l s o f G e s t a l t , t h o s e o f B e r l i n a n d G r a z ,o r i n r e l a t i o n t h e M e i n o n g i a n s 'theory o f production,t h e m a i n e x p o n e n t o fw h i c h w a s Wi t a s e k .

L i p p s ' i n t e r p re t a t io n o f t h e i l l u s io n s o f j u d g e m e n t a l s o c o m e s e x t ra -o r d i n a r i l y c l o s e t o t h e c o n c e p t i o n s d e v e l o p e d b y t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y c o g n i t i v esc i ences , i n pa r t i cu l a r i n the deba t e onimagery d e v e l o p e d a m o n g t h e o t h e r s b yS h e p a r d , C o o p e r a n d K o s s l y n . L i p p s ' j u d g e m e n t s o f c o m p a r i s o n a r ematerially

57 The ro le of percep tive illusions in experimental aesthetics is also stressed b yWitmer.

58 By 'objectivit ies ' the M einongians meant the objectual correlates of 'objectives, '

which may be the contents of statements such as:that this sound is higher than theottier.

59 Cf. [A lbertazzi 1999a].60 Cf. [Bon aventu ra 1929].


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ac t s o f movem ent f rom one fo rm to ano the ro r b e t t e r o f i t smodi f i ed p resen-ta t ive image i n o r d e r t o s e e t h e i r p a r t ia l o r t o t a l c o i n c i d e n c e s .

H o w e v e r , d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h is t h e s is r e q u i r e s t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f apsycho log ica l mechan ics -tha t i s , ana lysi s o f the s t a te s o f r e s t and m ot ion o fp e r c e p ts a n d o f t he c h a r a ct e ri st ic s o f p e r c e i v e d m o v e m e n t -a n d c o n s e q u e n t l yd e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h espat ia l presenta t ional pr imit iveso f t h e i r in d e x e s o fd i r e c t i o n , o f t h e i r b o u n d a r i e s , a n d o f t h e i r p e r c e p t i v e r e g u l a r i t ie s . A s s a id , t h e s em e c h a n i c s a l so c o m p r i s e e m p a t h i c e l em e n t s , i n t h e s e n s e t h at b e l o n g i n g a m o n gt h e condi t ions o f t h e f o r m a t i o n o f p e r c e p t i v eGestal ten a r e d i r e c t i o n a l p o s s i -b i l i t i e s o r s i m p l ydirect ions of the psycho physical wholea s inner determinantsw h i c h f u n c t i o n a smember- s t ruc tu resi n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e o ft h e p e r s o n a l i t y. 6~ P u t m o r e s i m p l y, t h e yt r ans fe r i n to p e r c e i v e d e x t e r n a l f o r m st h e a c t i v i ty, e f f o r t a n d s u f f e r i n g t h a t w e e x p e r i e n c e i n o u r s e l v e s , a f e a t u r e

w h i c h i s a l s o p r e s e n t in H i l d e b r a n d s a n a l y s i s . In m o d e r n t e r m s o n e w o u l d s a yt h a t t h is i s a q u e s t i o n o f i m a g i n a t i v e s c h e m a t a o r G e s t a l t p a t t e r n s i n t r i n s ic i nc o r p o r e a l m o v e m e n t s w h i c h a r e t h e n t r an s f e r r e d f r o m p e r c e p t i o n t o c o g n i t io ne v e n i n a b s t r a c t d o m a i n s l i k e m a t h e m a t i c s .

3. Archi tectonics : the pr inciples

A c c o r d i n g t o L i p p s ,to s ty l ize is to mecha nizeo r t o r ender the spa t ia l fo rm sof real i ty aes thet ical ly comprehensiblei n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e i r c o n c r e t e n e s s .

T h e s c i e n c e o f a e s th e t ic m e c h a n i c s r o t a te s a r o u n d t w ofundamental facts :

1 . boundary-making2 . t h e t ranspor t ing o f one for m on to another.

M o r e o v e r , a s w e s h a l l s ee , th e s c i e n c e o f a e s t h e ti c m e c h a n i c s r e s t s o n an u m b e r o f b a s icprinciples .

N a t u r a l s p a c e , w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s t h e g e n e r a l m a t e r i a l o f t h e a e s t h e t i cc o n f i g u r a t i o n s , i s i n i ts e l f d e v o i d o f f o r m a n d i s p o t e n t i a l l y i n a s t a t e o ftotalplerosis t o u s e a n e x p r e s s i o n f r o m B r e n t a n o s t h e o r y o f c o n t i n u a . P u t m o r es i m p l y, i t i sope n in all directions. 62

61 This feature was analysed byGanzheitpsychologie.For a h i s tor ica l -conceptua lappl ica t ion of the con cept see [Riegl 1966] . On the Herbar t ian roo ts (appercept ion) ofthe no t ion of aes the t icbehaviour see [Sega l 1906], 70 ff . On Lipp s theory of judge men tsee [Anschii tz 1913]. Benussi also dist inguished analyt ic types from synthetic types,which determined a specif ic at t i tude to perception.

62 Cf. [Brentan o 1933].


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T h e r e f o r e , a c c o r d i n g t o L i p p s ,f o r m i s t h e r e s u l t o f a na c t i v it y o f b o u n d a r y -m a k i n g d u e t o a n i n t e r p l a y o ff o r c e s w h i c h g i v e s r i s e t o t h e u n i t a r ya p p r e h e n s i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e o f c o n f i g u r a t i o n w i t h o u t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . 63C o n s e q u e n t l y, s t a r t in g f r o m t h e p e r c e p t i v e c o n t i n u u m , t h eb o u n d a r y t h a ti d e n t i f i e s a f o r m i s t h e o n l y t r u l yac t ive t h i n g das Ti i t ige)a n d a s s u c h i t i s a l s ot h e f u n d a m e n t a l f a c t o f a e s t h e ti c s . 64To s i m p l if y L i p p s ' m e c h a n i c s t o t h em a x i m u m , o n e c a n r e d u c e t h e e n t i r e s y s t e m t o t h e f a c t t h a t al i ne ex tendsa n d i sconf ine d zu r i i ckgeha l ten ) by i t s bounda r i e s . 6 s

F o r e x a m p l e , t h e v e r t ic a l m o v e m e n t p r o d u c e d b y t h e r e c ti l i n e a r t a p e r i n g o f ac o l u m n i n c r e a s e s a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e p r o g r e s s i v e r e s t r i c t io n t h u s r e a l i z e d .T h i s i s d u e t o t h e r o u n d s e c t i o n i n th e a x i s o f a v e r t ic a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n , w h i c ht h u s a p p e a r s a s at i e d m o v e m e n t . T h e a e s t h e ti c c h a r a c t e r o f th e s t a y s o r t h er o u n d - s e c t i o n s u p p o r t s i s s u c h b e c a u s e t h e y s e e m i n g l y c a u s e g r e a t e r v e r t i c a l

a c t i v i ty. I n f a c t , i f t h i n n e r o r w i d e r d r u m s a r e e x c h a n g e d i n t h e c o l u m n , ac h a n g e t ak e s p la c e in t h e n a r ro w i n g a n d b r o a d e n i n g o f th e c o l u m n ' s f o r m a n di ts h e i g h t , a n d d i f f e r e n t a s s e s s m e n t s a r e c o n s e q u e n t l y m a d e o f i t s h e i g h t . 66 T h a to b j e c t s m a y b e d e s c r i b e d i n te r m s o f ac r o s s - s e c t io n a l f i g u r e a l o n g a n a x i s -t h e id e a u n d e r l y i n g L i p p s ' t h e o r y - i s w i d e l y a c k n o w l e d g e d t o d a y i n c o m p u t e rv is io n . 67

A v e r y s i m p l e e x a m p l e o f b o u n d a r y - m a k i n g i s p r o v i d e d b y p o i n t s a n d l i n e s ,w h i c h c o n f i n e a s u r f a c e s p a c e ; a n d l i k e w i s e u n i t a r y l i n e s , w h i c h d e l i m i ts u r f a c e s a s u n i t s . A c l e a r e r i d e a c a n b e g a i n e d b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e o r n a m e n t a lm o t i f s o f C e l t i c c u l t u r e .

A s i g n i f i c a n t e x a m p l e o f th e s t r e n g th o f b o u n d a r y - m a k i n g a p p e a r s i n t h el i n e s o f v e rt i c a l s e g m e n t s w h e n c e r t a i n g r o u p s o f s e g m e n t s a r e s h i f t e d

r i g h t w a r d s o r l e ft w a r d s w i t h r e s p e c t t o th e o t h e r s t o p r o d u c e az ig -zag o rde r.O n e o f th e p r o b l e m s t h a t a r is e f r o m t h i s c o n c e p t i o n i s t h e f a c t t h a ti d e n t i f ic a t i o n o f b o u n d a r i e s , e v e n i f i t is n o t d u e t o t o t a l lyt o p - d o w np h e n o m e n a , i s n e v e r t h e l e s s s ti l l t h e r e s u l t o f c o g n i t i v e a c t i v i t i e s , a n d t h i s h a si m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e t h e o r y o f k n o w l e d g e .

I n f a c t , a c c o r d i n g t o L i p p s , e s s e n t i a l f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f af o r m i s t h e t r a n s p o r t in g o f o n e f o r m o n t o a n o t h e rs o t h a t t h e y c a n b ec o m p a r e d . T h i s c o m p a r i s o n i s t h e r e f o r e t h e s e c o n d f u n d a m e n t a l f a c t o fm e c h a n i c a l a e s t h e ti c s .

63 On this concep t see [D 'Arc y Thom pso n 1917].64 This is a v iew shared b y Lipps an d B rentano.65 This was a lso BtihIer 's view ([1913], 45). Co nversely , a m etaphysical theo ry of

conten ts Ia Brentano o ffe rs an explana t ion .66 [Lipps 1897], cha p. 53.67 I t is in fact the idea underl ing Biede rma nn's [1985] th eory of 'ge ons . '


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3.1. The basic principlesof aesthetic mechanics are instead the following:

A. the principle of mecha nical-aesthet ic unity;B. the principle of equi l ibr ium.

These two basic principles have further internal artic ulati ons. Here, ho-wever, I shall merely provide a defini t ionof the principles with some examples,omitting discussion of experimental analysis of their individual occurrences.

A) The principle of aesthet ic mechanical uni tystates that geometric formsmust be pos i t ed according to specif ic di rect ions which depend on thede te rmina teness o f the fo rm.For this reason, the principle of mechanical-aesthetic unity covers several types o f unity, namely:

a. successiveunity;b. s imultaneousunity;c. antagonis t icunity.

Let us take the simple case of a straight line AB (in its tension, Kandinskydeclared, a straight line is the most concise form of the infinite possibility ofmovement).68

A line originates from a simple unitary impulse o f movementand it extendsor runs from A to B starting f r o m a m e d i a n p o i n tbetween A and B. Theaesthetic commitment of the straight line consists of this unity in becoming, asan event Gesche hen). 69

The impulse that generates the line is a particular spatial impulse whichwould be impossible to represent if the act of presentation did not permitapprehens ion o f i t s unfo ld ing .To give an intuitive example taken from Volkelt,the charac te r o f ang lepossessed by a star-shaped figure, and which is of thesame quality as the whole, is a uni tary t ra i t (the same particular) in ourapprehension of star. 7 Angles, moreover, play a structu rally primary r ole in theaesthetics of particulars, given that acute angles are regularly overestimated andobtuse angles underesti mated, giving rise to so-called ang ula r dis tor t ions . 7~

6s Cf. [Kandinsky 1926], 58.69 For arguments against Lipps theory of movement see [BiJhler 1913], part II, chap.

2, 7. By contrast, it is interesting to see that Lipps idea is exemplified by the Path-schema of topological algebra, wh ich today is one o f the base schemata of cognitivesemantics.

7o Cf. [Volkelt 1934].7~ Cf. [Iastrow 1892]; [Lipps 1897].


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T h e m e c h a n i c a l - a e s t h e t i c u n i ty t h a t d e r i v e s f r o m t h e s e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s i st h e r e f o r e a u n i t y o fr e l a ti ve ly i ndependen t pa r t sa n d i t m a y a s s u m e d i f f e r e n tf o r m s . I n d e e d , o n d i f f e r e n t o c c a s i o n s a s u c c e s s i v e , s i m u l t a n e o u s o r a n t a g o n i s t i cm e c h a n i c a l - a e s t h e t ic u n i t y m a y a r i s e .

a . Success ive

M e c h a n i c a l - a e s t h e t i c u n i t y i s s u c c e s s i v e i n t h e c a s e o fs p a ti a l f o r m s w h i c hmove in a cer ta in d i rec t iono r w h i c h f o l l o w e a c h o t h e r i n t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n ,l i k e z i g - z a g l i n e s o r t r e e p a t t e r n s f o r m e d b y r o o t s , t r u n k , b r a n c h e s , l e a v e s , e t c .

T h e o r i g in a l i m a g e o f s u c c e s s i v e u n i t y i ss ingular ; tha t i s , i t i s g iven by amov eme n t o f depa r tu re an d a r r iva l .

b . S imul t aneous

M e c h a n i c a l - a e s t h e t i c u n i t y i s s i m u l t a n e o u s w h e n t h e f o r m o r i g i n a t e ss i m u l t a n e o u s l y f r o m t h e s a m e s p a c e . T h i s i s th e c a s e , f o r e x a m p l e , o fa f o r e s to r a co lonnade o r m o r e s i m p l y o f li n e s w h i c hrun f r ee ly ac ros s a su r f acea n di m p r i n t t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a c o r r e s p o n d i n g m o v e m e n t o n i t.

T h e a m p l i f i c a t io n e f f e c t p r o d u c e d b y t h i s t y p e o f a e s th e t i c - m e c h a n i c a l u n i t yi s c l e a r l y v i s i b l e i n th e w a l l s o f a b u i l d i n g t r a v e r s e d b y l i n e s , a n d i t w e l le x p r e s s e s K a n d i n s k y s i d e aof fre e l ines. 72

I n th i s c a s e th e o r i g i n a l i m a g e o f t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s u n i t y i s o n e o funi ty- in-multiplici ty.

c . Antagonis t ic

M e c h a n i c a l - a e s t h e t i c u n i t y i s a n t a g o n i s t i c w h e n i t a c t s a s t h e b o r d e rb e t w e e n t h e f o r m e r t w o t y p e s a n d g i v e sor ig in t o movemen t s i n oppos i t edi rec t ions a n i m p u l s e w h i c h g e n e r a t e s a n t a g o n i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s l i k eb o w i n gopen ing the a rms g ra sp ing ob jec t se t c .

T h i s i s a u n i t y t h a t m e d i a t e s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d o p p o s i t i o n a n dw h i c h c o m e s a b o u t i n d y n a m i c m o d e l s , i n b a l l e t, o r i n a r c h i te c t u r e . 73

T h e g e o m e t r i c f i g u r e th a t b e s t d e p i c t s t h is t y p e o f u n i t y i s t h eci rc le .

72 Cf. [K andin sky 1926].73 Once again on e notes that Lipps theory of aesthet ic mechan ics is highly topical .

Fo r cognit ive semantics, and Talm y in part icular, l inguist ic mod ali t ies are grou ndedprec ise ly in the exper ience o f phys ica lforces opera t ing in a contex t o fobstacles. Cf.[Talmy 1988]. On this cf . [Albertazzi 1999c].


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B . T h e s e c o n d f u n d a m e n t a l p r in c i p l e o f m e c h a n i c a l a e s t h e t i c s is t h eprinciple of equilibrium, w h i c h a r t i c u l a t e s i n t o t h e t w o f o l l o w i n g s u b -p r inc ip l e s :

B . 1B . 2

t he p r inc ip l e o fcompetitiveness;t he p r inc ip l e o fconfluxion.

The p r inc ip l e o f equ i l i b r ium re s t s on t he f ac t t ha tevery activity has acounter-tendency(p r inc ip l e o f compe t i t i ven es s ) , so t ha t a fo rm a t r e s t is i n as t a te o f e q u i l i b r i u m b e t w e e n t w o c o n t r a r y t e n d e n c i e s . A c l a s si c e x a m p l e o f as t a t e o f equ i l i b r iu m i s p rov id ed by t he go ld en s ec t i on , w h ich i s in f ac t be s tsu i t ed t o a r t i s t i c s t y l e s , l i ke Ar t D eco , wh ic h r e f e r t o t he o rga n i c wor ld . 74

Th i s i s a l so due t o t he ac t i on o f t heprinciple of confluxion,w h i c h h e l p s t o

shape t he spaces o f na tu ra l f o rms . A s t r a igh t fo rward example i s t he Mt i l l e r -Ly e r i ll u s ion : t he l ine s appea r t o be o f d i f f e r en t l eng ths beca use , a cco rd in g t oL ipps , a l so t heparts o f the external spacef rom bo th s ide s a r e i nvo lved i n t he i rassess me nt . 75

O r c o n s i d e r S c h u h m a n n s i l l u s io n , w h e r e t h e w h i t e s p a c e b e t w e e n t h e t w ov e r ti c a l b l ac k l i n e s se e m s t o b e w i d e r t h a n t h e s a m e s p a c e b e t w e e n t w o b l a c k e rve r t i c a l ba nds o f g r ea t e r t h i ckn es s . 76

O r a g a i n , c o n s i d e r t h e s p a c e e n c l o s e d b y t w o p a i r s o f p a r a l l e l h o r i z o n t a ll i ne s and wh ich d i f f e r s acco rd in g t o t he l eng th o f t he pa i r s . 77

Fur the r, g iven two equa l f i gu re s enc lo s ing t he s ame a r ea , i f pa r t o f t heou t l i ne o f one o f t he f i gu re s i s m i s s ing , t he l eng th o f t ha t s i de i s ove r-es t im ated .78

F i n a l l y, a t t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e d i r e c t i o n c h a n g e s , t h e m o v e m e n t a l w a y sappea r s t o be one and t he s ame : an ob tu se -ang led ch ange o f d i r ec t i on , i n f ac t ,g ives r i s e t o t he p r e sen t a t i on o f anactivity wh ich deviates. 79

A un i t a ry geome t r i c fo rm a t r e s t i s apoint. H e r e t h e m o v e m e n t s i n o p p o s i t ed i r ec t i ons a r e i n a s t a t e o f i nd i f f e r e nce o r i n equ i l i b r ium. 8 In t h i s c a se t oo , oneo f t h e p r i n c ip l e s o f L i p p s m e c h a n i c a l a e s th e t i c s e x p r e s s e s a k e y n o t i o n i nK a n d i n s k y s a e st h e t ic s .

74 Cf. [Zimm er 1998].75 [Mtiller-Lyer 1889].76 [Schu man n 1900]; [Lipp s 1897].77 [Thi6ry 1896]; [Lipps 1897].7s [MiJller-Lyer 1889]; [Lipps 1897].79 Brenta no s theo ry of continua resolves this problem by dist inguishing b etween the

external and internal boundary. Cf. [Brentano 1928], 15, 39.s0 Also [Btihler 1913], part II, chap. 3, 3, maintain ed that a certain ex tension , if no t

also a form, of surfacesFl~lchengestalt)is given in the impression of the point too.


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M o v e m e n t s o f e q u a l i n t e n s i t y b u t o f d i f f e r e n tfo rce , a n d t h e r e f o r e b o t hs y m m e t r i c a n d a - sy m m e t r i c m a y s t a r t f r o m t h e p o i n t. T h e s e m o v e m e n t s a r e :

m

B

t he ho r i zon t a l l i ne , wh ich s t a r t ssymmetr ical lyf r o m a m i d - p o i n t ;the ver t ica l l ine , which s ta r t sa-symmetr ical lyf r o m t h e m i d - p o i n t a s t h eo r i g in o f u p w a r d o r d o w n w a r d m o v e m e n t ( b o t h a r e p r e s e n t, f o r e x a m p l e , i nthe shape o f a j ug ) .

T h e r e l a ti o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o f u n d a m e n t a l f o r c e s o f o p p o s i t i o n -v e r t ic a l a n d h o r i z o n ta l ( t a k e n f r o m t h e c o n c e p t s o f f o r c e a n d o p p o s i t i o n i nmech an ic s ) 8~ - and wh ich a r e t he ba s i s o f t he p r inc ip l e o f equ i l i b r ium , na me lyt h e p r i n c i p le s o f c o m p e t i t iv e n e s s a n d c o n f l u x i o n , a r e f i g u r a t i v e l y e x p r e s s e d b ytwo c l a s s i ca l f o rms :

1) the Ionic column,w h e r e a s t h e d o w n w a r d m o v e m e n t ( m o v e m e n t i nvert icalline) proceeds i t g rows inc rea s ing ly e l a s t i c , and t he re fo re ga in s impe tus ;

2) the Gothic cusp,w h e r e t h e u p w a r d v e r t i c a l m o v e m e n t ( a g a i n m o v e m e n t i nve r t i c a l l ine ) s eems in s t ead t o t e rmina t e .

Tw o ac t i v i t i e s t he re fo re t ake p l ace i n one s ing l e f i gu ra l phenomenon : apr imary ac t i v i t y and asecondary tendency.F o r e x a m p l e , a p r i m a ry d o w n w a r dac t iv i t y ope ra t e s i n t hebase of t he co lum n , wh i l e i n the co lum n i t s e l f t he r e i s ap r i m a r y u p w a r dac t i v i t y wh ich s t r i ve s aga in s t g r av i ty.

4. Tectonics : the rules o f construct ion

W ha t a r e t he imp l i ca t i ons o f pe rcep t ive i l l u s ions fo r ae s the t i c t e c ton i c s?The op t i ca l co r r ec t i ons u sed i n a r t i s t i c t e c ton i c s , l i ke t heto rus o r t h e

trochilus, a re dev i ce s u sed t o e l im ina t e o r r educe op t i ca l -geome t r i c i l l u s ions ,wh ich i n f ac t a r e no th ing bu t i l l u s ions o f fo rm, s i ze o r d i r ec t i on . As L ippspo in t s ou t , i l l u s ions a redeictic: appa ren t ( i . e . no t ob j ec t i ve ly g iven ) cu rva tu re s ,o r fo ld s and d i s con t inu i t i e s ar e gene ra l l y t he s a f e s tpro tes t aga ins t the aes the t icsent iment ,aga ins t wh a t i s mechanical ly impossible .

T h e p e r c e p t i v e i l l u s i o n s w h i c h , a s w e h a v e s e e n , s u b s u m e a s y s t e m a t i cmereological theorys u b s t a n t ia l l y a ri s e f r o m t h r e e t y p e s o f o p p o s i t i o n , n a m e l yt h o s e b e t w e e n :

st Acco rding to B iihler,verticalityis identif ied first in the case of directions, butho-rizontalityis psyc hical ly first with respect todirection.Cf. [Bi.ihler 1913], chap . 2, 2.


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188 LILI N LBERT ZZI

a) extens ion and l imi ta t ion;b) gravi ty and ver t ica l ac t iv i ty ;c) ident i ty and divers i ty of d i rec t ion .

L ipps ae s the t ic mechan ic s is p r inc ipa lly exemp l i f i ed by theco lumns ofGreek temples, which a re vertically ere cted configurations Ge bilde)w h o s einner state is aconflict b e t w e e n vertical extensionand horizontal limitation,and in wh ich the d i s t r ibu t ion o f fo rces va r i e s be twe en the Do r i c , Ion ic andCor in th i an o rde rs . In L ipps mechan ica l ae s the ti c s , t he e r ec t ing o f a co lumn i sno t me taphor i ca l i n cha rac te r, a s Dess o i r a rgued , bu t , a s we have seen , be longsto an aes thet ics of par t iculars ana lysed in the terms o f anexperimental theory ofparticulars, and spec i f i ca l ly o f t heexpressive qualities.In f ac t , cons ide r t hecha rac t e r is t i c s o f t he fo l lowing co lumns .

T h e Doric columns tands d i rec t ly on the s ty lobate . Without a base , i t i sf l u ted , and the d i ame te r o f the co lumn g radua l ly d im in i shes ( t ape r s ). L oca ted a t1 /3 of i t s he ight i s a s l ight correc t ive convexi ty ( the entas is ) . The column has ac i r cu l a r mou ld ing ( ech inus ) su rmoun ted by a quad rangu la r s l ab ( abacus ) .Ab ove the a r ch i t rave , w h ich jo ins t he co lum ns , t he f r i eze cons i s ts o f deco ra t ives labs wi th three ver t ica l grooves .

T h e Ionic Columndoes no t s t and d i r ec t ly on the s ty loba te , bu t on a ba se w i thconvex ( to rus ) and concave ( t roch i lu s ) mou ld ings . I t i s s l im and t ape r ing wi thf lu t e s i n te r spaced by rounde d d iv ide r s . The c i r cu l a r mou ld ing ( ech inus ) o f thecap i t a l i s o rnamen ted w i th ovo id deco ra t ions . In se r t ed be twe en the ech inus andthe square s lab above i t ( the abacus) i s the pulvin , which curves la tera l ly in totwo l a rge vo lu te s . The f r i eze o f t he a r ch i tr ave bea r s an im a l r e l ie f s ( zoophorus ) .

Final ly, the Corinthian columni s ve ry s imi l a r t o t he Ion ic co lumn excep ttha t the capi ta l i s decora ted wi th s ty l ized acanthus leaves .As an exam ple o f L ipp s m echan ic s , l e t s ana lyze the m echan ica l - ae s the t i c

f ea tu re s o f t he Dor i c co lum n , a s t o t he con f l i c t i ng fo rces and the i r e f f ec t s i n t heco lumn .

1 . Th e ver t ica lelevation of a do r i c co lumn , w h ich imp l i e s t he t ype o faxisfiguration, does no t i n f ac t fo l low a s t r a igh t l i ne , because o f t he en t a s i s .The op t i ca l i l l u s ion the re fo re a r i s e s whereby the co lumnappears to be intension at i t s mid-point , which i s underes t imated.

2 . The co lumn has arounded (no t squa re ) shape wh ich c rea t e s t he i l l u s ion o fan ac t iv i ty tha t pulls inwards and sh r inks , g iv ing the impres s ion o f ac losu re f ixed in i tse l f .

3 . Bec ause o f t hesuccessive thinningdue to the entas is , the i l lus ion ar ises ofunde res t ima t ing the l owe r pa rt and ove re s t ima t ing the uppe r pa r t o f theco lumn , so tha t i t appea r s e longa ted .


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. T h e rhythm e x p r e s s e d b y t h e f l u t i n g o f t h e c o l u m n s c r e a t e s c o n t r a s t i n ge f f e c t o f m o v e m e n t s , w h i l e t he v a r i o u s m o v e m e n t s p r e s e n t i n t h e c o l u m nf l o w t o g e t h e r i n t o a s o r t o fdecision-line in fav ou r o f the straight linew h i c h p r o d u c e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f s o m e s o r t o f s ti ll a c t iv i t y.

T h e g e n e r a l thesis o f a e s t h e t ic m e c h a n i c s i s t h u s t h e fo l l o w i n g :the mode o faesthetic behaviour i s n o t c o n v e y e d b y t h e c o l u m n , b u t b y t h espatialconfiguration that is represented i n t h e c o l u m n . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h elinessurfaces a n d corporeal configurations ( n o t m a s s e s ) c a r r y w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e st h e l in e s , w h i c h a r e l im i t e d b y t h e s u r f a c e s o r w h i c h f i l l t h e c o r p o r e a l s p a c e .

I t is t h e r e f o r e n o t t h eroof o f a b u i ld i n g t h a t b e a r s d o w n w a r d s b u t i t striangular o r t r a p e z o i d a lsurface. I t i s n o t t h e m a r b l e b u t t h e h u m a n f o r m o fM y r o n ' s Discobolus t h a t b e n d s , s t r e t c h e s h i s a r m , t u r n s h i s h e a d .

T h u s t h e e l e v a t i o n o f t h e D o r i c c o l u m n , o r m o r e s i m p l y t h a t o f a t a b l e o rc h a i r l e g , p e r t a i n s n o t t o t h e m a t e r i a l m a s s b u t t o t h eform of the vert icalstraight line.

B y c o n t r a s t , a meander f o r e x a m p l e , f l o w s e n t i r e l y h o r i z o n t a l l y. I tp r o c e e d s , t h e n m o v e s b a c k w a r d s , t h e n m o v e s f o r w a r d a g a in , a n d s o o n . T h ed i r ec t io n s o f t h is m o v e m e n t a r eright-angular f i r st u p w a r d s a n d t h e nd o w n w a r d s , b u t t he o v e r a l lcontext i s o n e of fo rward movement .

T h e c o r o l l a r i e s t o t h i s t h e s i s a r e a s f o l l o w s .

C I . T h e object o f t h e a r ts o f a b s t r a c t s p a t i a l f o r m s i sliving o r force-f i l ledspace i n t h e s e n s e t h e i n h e r e n t i n f o r m s i s o n l y t h e i rnatural type of origini n t h e ir o c c u r r e n c e . T h a t w h i c h e l e v a t e s o r d e v i a t e s is t h e r e f o r e a p a r t i c u l a r

piece of form ed space.C 2 . A c t i v e i n a s p a t i a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n a r ea orm-in-i tself and a form-in-context .C 3 . To stylize is to mechanize:t h a t is , e v e r y g e o m e t r i c f o r m i s n a t u r e s t y l i z e d

a c c o r d i n g t o i ts a e s t h e t i c m e a n i n g .

5. Psychologism anti-psychologism an d bey ond

L i k e l o g i c , m a t h e m a t i c s , e c o n o m i c s a n d m e t a p h y s i c s , a l s o a e s t h e t i c s w a sc a u g h t u p i n t h e p s y c h o l o g i s taffaire o f t h e la t e n i n e t e e n t h a n d e a r l y t w e n t i e t hc e n t u r y. T h e p r o b l e m o f t h e l o g i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f t h o u g h t , w h i c hf r o m B o o l e t o B r o u w e r , R u s s e l l a n d S c h l i c k w a s a c r u c ia l a s p e c t o f t h e c r i s i s o ft h e f o u n d a t i o n s , i s p a r t i c u l a r ly e v i d e n t i n a e s t h e t ic s . A s F a n c i u I l i a c u t e l y p o i n t -e d o u t i n a c ri t ic a l n o t e o n M e u m a n n ' s b o o k p u b l i s h e d i n D e S a r l o ' sCulturaFilosofica t h e e x p r e s s io n " p s y c h o l o g i c a l a e s t h e ti c s " i s p le o n a s t ic , c u m b e r s o m e


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19 LILI N LBERT ZZI

and ugly, because the adjective is im plicit in the n oun. 82I have quoted Fan-ciulli s observation because of its provenance (De Sarlo s school of philosophyand psychology was in the avant-garde, and indeed comparable with the schoolsof Graz, Berlin and Leipzig), 83 and in order to dr aw a n umber of conclus ions.

Firstly, in those years the accusation of psychologism was so widespread atthe time, and bandied about by so many authors, that it is obscure andundefinable. In effect, a true theoretical history of psychologism has yet to bewritten, s4 To remain within the a rea of referenc e of this paper, Brenta no toowas accused of psychologism, and Husserl himself, who in the first edition ofhis Logical Investigationsattacked Lipps position, revised it in the second.

Secondly, the central issue, the nature of the representation understood alsoin its presentational primitives, never amounted to more than an unprovenaxio m even in descriptive psyc hology, as Schlick pointed out. s5 Experi mental

analysis in this area has lapsed into oblivion for various historical and culturalreasons.

Thirdly , as far as aesthetics is concerned, and Lipps theory in particular, thequestion concerns the founda tionitself of the discipline, na mely the ontologicalrelationship between the identification o f particu larsas meaningful objectualtraits in actual aesthetic experience and the individuation o f aesthetic objects a-temporally configurable as such. The question is still unresolved because, as Imentioned at the outset, a theory of the morphogenesis of particulars has yet tobe developed. Because Fechner believed that it was impossible to analyse whathe called the direct factors he resolved the issue by resorting to theirstraightforward statistical enunciation and enumeration. It was a crucialproblem of psychophysics which traversed, albeit implicitly, the aesthetics of

the Mu nich school. Moreover, as Dessoir observed, 86 it was also a que stion ofvital importance for the phenomenological movement.Finally, also from an expressive point of view, the question of a

psychological aestheticsto use Fanciulli s expression, once again relates to theetymological origins of the term and to the unavoidable sensed connec tionthatthe discipline evidences between cognitive structuresand figural qualitiestertiary in particular; a question of inner psychophysics which still today thecognitive sciences are endeavouring to answer.

s2 [Fanciulli 1907].s3 Cf. [Albertazzi, Cimino and Gori-Savellini 1998].84 From a historical point o f view see [Kusch 1995].s5 On this see [Albertazzi 1996a].s6 [Dessoir 1907].


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THE AESTHETICSOF PARTICULARS:A CASEOF INTUITIVEMECHANICS 191

R e f e r e n c e s

[Albertazzi 1995]

[Albertazzi 1996a]

[Albertazzi 1996b]

[Albertazzi 1997a]

[Albertazzi 1997b]

[Albertazzi 1997c][Albertazzi 1998a]

[Albertazzi 1998b]

[Albertazzi 1998c]

[Albertazzi 1999a]

[Albertazzi 1999b][Albertazzi 1999c]

[Albertazzi , Cimino

[Allesch 1910]

[Allesch 1931]

[AnschiJtz 1913]

[Anschtitz 1915]

[Anaheim 1986]

[Benussi 1905]

L. Alber tazz i , Forms of comple t ion ,Grazer PhilosophischeStudien 50, 321-40.L. Albertazzi , ed. ,The Philosophy of Alexius M einong,specialissue ofAxiomathes 1-2.L. Albertazz i , A cubist s tate of mind, in [Albertazzi ed. 19 96a],5-16.L . Alber tazzi , The 'Open Texture ' o f Concepts . Kaufmann andthe Brentan ists , in [Stadler 1997], 47-72.L. Albertazzi , Con tinua, adject ives and tert iary quali t ies , inAxiomathes8, 1997, 7-29.L. Albe rtazzi, Flo ren ce, in [Poli 1997], 177-211.L. Albertazzi , ed. ,Shapes of forms, From phenom enology to

Gestalt psychology to ontology and m athematics,Kluwer,Dordrecht 1998a.L. Aibertazzi , Form metaphysics, in [Albertazzi 1998a], 261 -309.L. Albertazzi , Percep tual sal iences and nuclei of mea ning, in[Poli 1998], 113-138.L. Albertazzi , Strut ture temporal i e ontologia: Enz oBon aven tura, in [Albertazzi , Cimino and Gori-Sav ell ini 1999], inpress.L. Albertazzi , ed. ,Cognitive semantics,for thcoming by Benjamin .L. Aibertazzi , Direct ions and perspective points in spat ialpercept ion . A foundat iona l approach to themes of cogni t ivesemantics, in [Albertazzi 1999b].

and Gori-Sav ell ini 1998] L. Albertazzi , G. Cim ino and S.Gori-Savell ini eds. ,l l laboratorio f iorentino di psicologia diFrancesco D e Sarlo,Giusep pe Laterza ed., BaN 1998.J .G. yon Allesch, () 'ber das Verh~ il tnis der ,g, thet ik zurPsychologic , Zeitschrif t ~ r Psychologie5 4 , 4 0 1 - 5 3 6 .J .G. yon Allesch, Zu r nichteuclidischen Stru ktur des phgino-menalen Raumes. (Versuche an Lem ur mon goz mon goz L.),Fischer, Jena.G. Anschti tz , Theo dor Lipps neuere Urteilslehre,Engelmann,Leipzig.G. Anschi i tz , ' 'Theodor Lipps , Archiv fi ir die gesamtePsychologie 34, 1-13.R. Arnheim, New E ssays on the Psychology o f Art ,Cal i forn iaPress, B erke ley-Los Angeles -London.V. Benussi , La natura del le cosidd ette il lusioni ot t ico-geomet r iche , Atti del V Convegno di psicologia,ed . by S . DeSanctis, Fo rzani , Roma, 262 -267.


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192 LILIANA ALBERTAZZI

[Benussi 1913]

[Benussi 1914]

[Benussi 1922-23]

[Benussi 1925]

[Biedermann 1985]

[Bonaventura 1929]

[Brentano 1874][Brentano 1907]

[Brentano 1928]

[Brentano 1933]

[Brunswik 1934]

[Brunswik 1935]

[B~ihler 1913]

[Campbell 1990][Cornelius 1900]

[D'Arcy Thompson

[De Rosa 1990]

[De Rosa 1994]

[Dessoir 1907]

[Dilthey 1974]

V. Benussi, Psychologie der Zeitauffassung,Winter, Heidelberg1913.V. Benussi, Gesetze der inadequ~iten Gestaltauffassung, Archivfi ir die gesamte Psychologie32, 396-419.V. Benussi, Introduzione alia psicolo gia sperimenta le,Lezionitenute nell'anno 1992-23 dal Prof. V. Benussi e raccolte dal Dott.C.L. Musatti assistente, manuscript.V. Benussi, La suggestione e l ipnosi come mezzi di a nalisipsichica reale,Zanichelli, Bologna.I. Biedermann, Human image and understanding: Recent researchand a theory, Comp uter Vision, Graphics, and Imag e Processing32, 29-73.E. Bonaventura, II problema psicologico del tempo,IstitutoSocieth Editoriale Scientifico, Milano.F. Brentano, Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkte,Duncker& Humblot, Leipzig 1874; En. tr. Routledge, London 1995.F Brentano, Untersuchungen zur Sinnespychologie,Duncker &Humblot, Leipzig.F. Brentano, Von sinnliche n und noetischen Bew ufltseins,ed. by O.Kraus, Meiner, Leipzig; En. tr. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London1981.F. Brentano, Kategorienlehre, Meiner, Leipzig; En. tr. Nijhoff,The Hague 1981.E. Brunswik, Wahrnehmung und Gegenstan dswelt ,Deuticke,Leipzig und Wien.E. Brunswik, Experimentelle Psychologie in Demonstrationen,Springer, Vienna.K. Biihler, Die Gestaltwahrnemungen. Exp erim entelle Unter-

suchungen zur psychologischen u nd gisthetischen Analyse derRaum-und Zei tanschauung,yon Spemann, Stuttgart.K. Campbell, Abs tract Particulars,Basil Blackwell.H. Cornelius, Ober Gestaltqualit/~ten, ' Zeitschrif tf i ir Psychologie22, 101-102.

1917] D'Arcy Thompson, On Growth and Form, CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge.M.R. De Rosa, Theodor Lipps: estetica e critica delle arti,Guida,Napoli.M.R. De Rosa, II cavaliere azzurrro. Figure e problemi,Guerini,Milan.M. Dessoir, Objectivismus in der )i, sthetik, Zeitschri~ 3~rAsthetik2, 449-468.W. Dilthey, ldeen i iber eine beschreibende und zergliederndePsychologie (1894), ed. by G. Misch, Teubner, Stuttgart, vol. V,136-240.


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[Ehlen 1914] N. Ehlen,Die Erkenntnis der Auflen welt nach Th eodo r Lipps,Dissertatio n, M finster.

[Ehrenfels 1985] Ch. yon Ehren fels ,Philosophische Schriften,Bd. II , Asthetik,ed.by R. Fabian, Philosop hia, Mi. inchen.

[Eila net al . 1993] N. Eilan, M cCarth y, R. and Brew er, B. eds. ,Spatialrepresentation, Blackwel l, Oxford Uk and Camb r idge USA.

[Fanciul li 1907] G. Fanciul l i , I l imiti del l 'estet ica psicolo gica, Rev iew of E.Meumann, 'Die Grenzen der psychologischen Asthe t ik , 'Philosophische Abhandlungen, M ax Heinze zum 70 Geburstag,Ber l in 1906 , LaCultura Filosofical , 44-50.

[Fechn er 1871] Th. Fechner,Zur experimentelle Asthetik,Hirzel , Leipzig.[Fechner i876] Th . Fechner,Vorschule der,4sthetik,Bre itkop f & H~irtel, Leipzig.[Flores D'A reais 1975] G.B. Flores D'A rcais ed. ,Studies in perception: Festschrif t

for Fabio Metell i ,Giunti , Firenze.[Fischer 1907] A. Fischer,

Zu r Bestimmung des iisthetischen Gegenstandes,Stein,

Munich .[G eig erl9 11 ] M. Geiger, Das BewuBtsein von Gef 't ihlen,Miinchener

philosophische Abhandlungen,Barth, Leipzig.[Geige r 1928] M. Geiger,Zugdnge zur Asthetik,Geist Verlag, Leipzig.[Herbart 1964a] J .F. Herbart ,Siimtliche Werke,in chrono logischer Reienfo lge , ed .

by K. K ehrbach and O. Flfigel , vols . XIX, Darm stadt .[Herbart 1964b] J .F. Herbart ,Hauptpuncte derMetaphys ik ,in [Herbart 1964a], vol .

II, 175-216.[Hildebrand 1905] A. von Hildebrand ,Das Problem der Form in der bildenden

Kunst, Heitz, S trassburg.[Hornbo stel 1925] E.M. von Horn bostel , Die Einheit der Sinne,Melos. Zeitschrift

f~r M usik4, 290-97.[Huss erl 1900-1] E. Hu sserl,Logische Untersuchungen,Niemeyer, Hal le 1900-1 ;

repr. edi ted by E. Holenstein (Husserl iana XVII) , Nijhoff , DenHagu e; repr. of Vols. I and II edi ted by U. Pa nze r (Husserl ianaXIX), 1,2, 1986.

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[Husserl 1996b] E. Husserl ,Analysen zur passiven Synthesis,Nijhoff , Th e Hague .[Kand insky 1926] V. Kandinsky,Punk, Linie zu r Fliiche,Bahuhaus Bi icher, Langen .[Kant 1790] I . Kant ,Kritik d er Urteilskraft,bey Lagarde und Fr ieder ich , Ber lin

und Libau.[Kanizsa 1991] G. Kanizsa,Vedere e pensare,I1 Mulino, B ologn a.[Kardos 1934] L. Kardos,Ding und Schatten,Barth, Leipzig.[Katz 1911] D. Katz , Die Ersche inungsweisen des Farben und ihre Bee in-

flussung durch die individuelle Erfahrung,Zeitschrif t fffr Psy-chologie 7; repr. Der AuJbau der Farbw elt ,Barth, Leipzig 1930.


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Liliana Albertazzi the Aesthetics of Particulars