{\rtf1{\info{\title Breve Historia Iilustrada de la
Filosofia}{\author Otfried H
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OTFRIED H\u214?FFE \par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{\s1 \afs32 {\b Breve historia ilustrada de la filosof\u237?a
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\ plain\hyphpar} {\s2 \afs28 {\b
El mundo de las ideas a trav\u233?s de 18o im\u225?genes
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar }\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} TRADUCCI\u211?N
DE JOS\u201? LUIS GIL ARISTU
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{\line } IX. RACIONALISMO Y EMPIRISMO 16 7 {\line } X.
LA \u201?POCA DE LA ILUSTRACI\u211?N 18 9 {\line } XI.
IMMANUEL KANT 21 1 {\line } XII. EL IDEALISMO ALEM\u193?N 2
29 XIII. DE SCHOPENHAUER A MARX 24 9 {\line } XIV.
FILOSOF\u205?AS DE LA VIDA. DE NIETZSCHE {\line } A DEWEY Y
BERGSON 26 7 {\line } XV. FENOMENOLOG\u205?A, EXISTENCIALISMO
{\line } Y HERMEN\u201?UTICA 28 9 {\line } XVI.
FILOSOF\u205?A ANAL\u205?TICA. DE FREGE A WITTGENSTEIN 31 1 XVII.
FILOSOF\ u205?A TE\u211?RICA CONTEMPOR\u193?NEA 32 9 {\line }
XVIII. LA FILOSOF\u205?A PR\u193?CTICA CONTEMPOR\u193?NEA 34
3 UNA VISI\u211?N DE CONJUNTO. {\line } FILOSOF\u205?A EN UN
MUNDO \u218?NICO 35 9 \par\pard\plain\hyphpar} { {\i Referencias
bibliogr\u225?ficas} 36 7 {\line } {\i Procedencia de las
ilustraciones} 36 9 {\line } {\i \u237?ndice} 37 3
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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\u191?POR QU\u201? FILOSOFAR? { Esperamos de la
filosof\u237?a que plantee preguntas fundamentales para darles r
espuestas igualmente fundamentales. En efecto, la filosof\u237?a se
ocupa de cue stiones de principio que urgen, incluso, a toda la
humanidad y pueden concentrar se en tres interrogantes decisivos:
1) \u191?Qu\u233? es la naturaleza y qu\u233 ? podemos saber de
ella? 2) \u191?C\u243?mo debemos vivir en cuanto individuos y
en cuanto comunidad? 3) \u191?Qu\u233? debemos esperar de una
buena existencia, en esta vida o en la futura? A estas
preguntas se suman otras que preocupan a \ u233?pocas concretas,
como la relaci\u243?n entre raz\u243?n y revelaci\u243?n o la
relativa a si existe un progreso en la historia.
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} { Algunos tienen a los fil\u243?sofos por
personas ajenas a la vida real. Sin emba rgo, quien examine
m\u225?s en detalle esas preguntas que ellos plantean y que a
fectan a la humanidad en general descubrir\u225? enseguida
cuestiones parciales o subordinadas que nada tienen de ajeno a la
realidad: 1{\i a)} \u191?Hay una materia originaria o
b\u225?sica constitutiva de la totalidad de la naturaleza?;
\u191?existe eso que significa la palabra \u171?\u225?tomo\u 187?
en sentido literal: un componente \u250?ltimo e indivisible de la
naturalez a? 1{\i b)} \u191?Es la naturaleza espacial y
temporalmente infinita, o, por el contrar io, finita y, por tanto,
obra de un creador, de una divinidad? Es posible que es tas
preguntas no tengan relevancia existencial, pero no cabe duda de
que las sig uientes s\u237? la tienen: la cuesti\u243?n referente
2{\i a)} al bien y el mal y 2{\i b)} a la libertad, sobre
todo la libertad de la voluntad, y 2{\i c)} la que inquiere por la
justicia del derecho y el Estado. Para terminar, tamb i\u233?n
queremos saber 3 a) si nuestro bienestar, la felicidad, depende de
nues tro buen comportamiento, de una vida moralmente buena:
\u191?es rentable la honr adez moral o, por el contrario, la
persona honrada es, en definitiva, un tonto? 3{\i b}) Y, en el caso
de que la compensaci\u243?n no se d\u233? \u171?en esta vida\u
187?, \u191?hay esperanza de un alma inmortal, una vida eterna y
una recompensa en el m\u225?s all\u225?? Aunque es posible eludir
estas preguntas, resulta dif\ u237?cil negarlas. As\u237? pues,
tenemos deFil\u243?sofo con una linterna. rech o a decir que es
necesario filosofar. La {\i Fresco de Rafael.} filosof\u237?a no
quiere hechizar el mundo en \par\pard\plain \hyphpar}
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filosofar: la filosof\u237?a comienza a desarrollarse
all\u237? donde la gente se siente insatisfecha por la manera en
que se han planteado esas preguntas o c\ u243?mo se les ha dado
respuesta hasta entonces. A partir de un descontento fund amental,
de una cr\u237?tica radical, se establece un nuevo estilo de
pre\par\pa rd\plain\hyphpar}
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puesto el sudor antes del premio\u187?. Como ocurre con cualquier
otra disposici \u243?n natural, el ansia de saber no se hace
realidad sin un esfuerzo. Adem\u22 5?s, en segundo lugar la cima de
la sabidur\u237?a no se alcanza hasta haber sup erado otras cumbres
previas. La filosof\u237?a solo surge donde se han desarroll ado ya
las preguntas sencillas sobre el qu\u233? y el porqu\u233?, es
decir, la sabidur\u237?a de la vida y la ciencia com\u250?n, por
ejemplo, en forma de astr onom\u237?a. En el \u225?mbito donde
aparece la filosof\u237?a griega, esas cumb res previas las
conocemos sobre todo por Egipto y Babilonia. Los propios griegos
no reivindican el descubrimiento de la ciencia y la
filosof\u237?a, sino que at ribuyen ese logro a los egipcios.
Finalmente, solo quien no se vea agobiado por la b\u250?squeda
elemental de la utilidad podr\u225? permitirse un saber no util
itario. Mientras las necesidades de la vida no est\u233?n
aseguradas para toda l a sociedad o para un grupo determinado, no
se podr\u225? disponer del \par\pard\ plain\hyphpar}
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{ {\i Las matem\u225?ticas y el estudio de la {\line }
naturaleza son precursores de }\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{ {\i la filosof\u237?a te\u243?rica. En
Ba}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{ {\i bilonia se observaba el cie {\line } lo,
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{ {\i ja de la b\u243?veda celeste
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{ {\i medici\u243?n derivan, tanto en
}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{ {\i Babilonia como en Egipto o
Chi}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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calidad, tanto respecto a los caminos como a las respuestas.
Y, en especial, si gue estando abierta la cuesti\u243?n de saber
cu\u225?les son las preguntas deci sivas para una \u233?poca o para
toda la humanidad. \par\pard\plain\hyphpar} { Quien quiera conocer
con m\u225?s precisi\u243?n este proyecto, deber\u225? leer
personalmente a los grandes fil\u243?sofos. En un tiempo en
que no debemos dar por supuesto que los conocimientos
filos\u243?ficos b\u225?sicos est\u225?n muy difundidos, lo que
intentamos ofrecer aqu\u237? por medio de una historia breve es una
introducci\u243?n que trate de ganarse al lector para la
cuesti\u243?n pr opiamente dicha. En este sentido, haremos
hincapi\u233? en los textos cl\u225?si cos, que deber\u225?n leerse
preferentemente con actitud cr\u237?tica y, al mism o tiempo, con
amor. Todos los cap\u237?tulos concluyen con unas lecturas recomen
dadas destinadas a aprender a filosofar, es decir, a pensar de
forma viva, por n osotros mismos, con la gu\u237?a de los grandes
fil\u243?sofos.* \par\pard\plain \hyphpar} { * El texto y las
propuestas para las ilustraciones fueron presentados por primer a
vez \par\pard\plain\hyphpar}{ * El texto y las propuestas para las
ilustraciones fueron presentados por primer a vez 2000. Agradezco
al p\u250?blico el gran inter\u233?s demostrado, y a mi co
laborador Christoph Wolgast su m\u250?ltiple ayuda.
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\i Detalle de la Xilograf\u237?a de 1888 realizada al estilo
de c. 1520. }{ \~\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\b I }{ \~\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} LOS INICIOS. ANTES DE
S\u211?CRATES { La formaci\u243?n de la filosof\u237?a, lo mismo
que el desarrollo intelectual d e un joven, es un proceso largo. El
paso \u171?del mito al logos\u187? no se pro duce de repente, por
una iluminaci\u243?n interior. La cuestionabilidad del mund o es
algo de lo que los seres humanos solo logran percatarse poco a
poco; as\u23 7? pues, no es posible trazar una frontera precisa.
Cuando el poeta beocio Hes\u 237?odo (c. 700 a. C.) critica la
religi\u243?n tradicional en su libro{\i Teogonia} ('El
origen de los dioses') se adelanta a la filosof\u237?a como cr\u
237?tica de la religi\u243?n. Y en su insistencia en diferenciar
entre lo falso y lo verdadero se est\u225? insinuando una
cr\u237?tica del conocimiento. \par\p ard\plain\hyphpar} { La
filosof\u237?a en sentido estricto comienza en Jonia, la parte de
Grecia cult uralmente abierta que practicaba el comercio y fundaba
ciudades coloniales. Su o rigen se sit\u250?a en las ciudades
portuarias de Asia Menor como Mileto, Colof\ u243?n y Efeso, en
islas como Samos y en la Grecia colonial, en el sur de Italia . Sin
embargo, los primeros pensadores, a los que los fil\u243?sofos
posteriores vuelven una y otra vez, no son solo
fil\u243?sofos sino tambi\u233?n naturalist as y, adem\u225?s,
\u171?sabios\u187?, es decir, consejeros de los pol\u237?tico s y
del pueblo y, en particular, notables maestros de la lengua.
\par\pard\plain \hyphpar} { Dado que S\u243?crates constituye un
hito importante, los fil\u243?sofos anterio res a \u233?l\u8212?de
Tales a Dem\u243?crito y los sofistas\u8212?se llaman pre
socr\u225?ticos. El objeto principal de su pensamiento es la
naturaleza como un todo y su orden y compostura, el cosmos; y,
luego, el mundo religioso. La filoso f\u237?a comienza como
filosof\u237?a natural, o cosmolog\u237?a, y como cr\u237 ?tica de
la religi\u243?n; les sigue luego una reflexi\u243?n sobre todo
cuanto existe: la ontolog\u237?a. Los asuntos humanos, y con ellos
la \u233?tica \par\p ard\plain\hyphpar} y la filosof\u237?a
pol\u237?tica, no ocupar\u225?n un pri{ {\i Los presocr\u225?ticos
descubren el} mer plano hasta m\u225?s tarde. En este pro {\i orden
\u171?l\u243?gico\u187? de la naturale} ceso, que se prolonga
durante m\u2 25?s de {\i za. } La Astronom\u237?a.{\i Fresco}
doscientos a\u241?os, se forman no solo co{\i de Rafael pintado en
un techo.} rrientes filos\u243?ficas diversas, sino tambi\u 233?n
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {\b 2 1 } { diferentes figuras y estilos,
trabados, no obstante, unos con otros. Quien quier a explorarlos se
topar\u225? con textos complicados y con la dificultad a\u241?a
dida de que se han conservado \u250?nicamente de forma fragmentaria
y en testimo nios posteriores, como \u171?fragmentos de los
presocr\u225?ticos\u187?, accesib les solo a int\u233?rpretes
dotados de capacidad creativa. \par\pard\plain\hyphp ar} { Los
principales conceptos de los primeros fil\u243?sofos son los de
\u171?physis \u187?, 'naturaleza', \u171?arch\u233?\u187?,
'principio'\u8212?en el sentido de 'origen' o 'comienzo'
desde un punto de vista temporal, formativo o jer\u225?rq
uico\u8212?, \u171?logos\u187?, 'concepto y argumento', 'orden',
'raz\u243?n' y 'lengua', y \u171?kosmos\u187?, el mundo ordenado y
reconocible en su orden, ade m\u225?s de hermoso. En estos cuatro
conceptos se perfila la importancia de los
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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}}
{ {\i Tales (c. 624-546 a. C), fil\u243?sofo, estudioso de la
naturaleza, matem\u225?t ico, consejero pol\u237?tico y uno de los
Siete Sabios, propone el agua como ori gen o principio del mundo,
con lo que establece as\u237? un primer modo de filos ofar. {\line
} - Copia helen\u237?stica de una escultura.
}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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cd1fee9fa7f768a2803fffd9 }}
{ {\i Pit\u225?goras (c. 572-480 a. C.) funda en Italia
meridional una comunidad influ yente parecida a una orden
religiosa. En ella se manifiesta una tercera forma de
filosofar: la vinculaci\u243?n entre un programa de
formaci\u243?n te\u243?rica y un plan de vida pr\u225?ctico y
asc\u233?tico. - Busto clasicista. }\par\pard \plain\hyphpar}
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teria original\u187?), sustituy\u233?ndola por algo novedoso: si la
Tierra es es table porque se asienta sobre el agua, hay que
preguntarse sobre qu\u233? descan sa el agua. Si se propone como
respuesta otra materia, volveremos a preguntarnos sobre
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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como por sus ideas\u187?. En el monote\u237?smo defendido aqu\u237?
se entrev\u2 33?n ya cuatro de los componentes decisivos de una
concepci\u243?n filos\u243?fi ca de Dios: que es \u250?nico, que se
caracteriza por un superlativo \u171?absol uto\u187?\u8212?es el
m\u225?s grande, y, adem\u225?s, (completamente) distinto\ u8212?,
que es esp\u237?ritu y, finalmente, que es el autor de todas las
cosas: \u171?Pone todo en movimiento sin experimentar fatiga, solo
con la fuerza de su mente\u187?. {\line } Escasean los
testimonios fiables sobre Pit\u225?goras, quien, adem\u225?s, no d
ej\u243? ning\u250?n escrito. Algunos estudiosos lo consideran
\u250?nicamente u n mago y un profeta religioso; para otros es un
importante fil\u243?sofo, matem\ u225?tico y te\u243?rico de la
m\u250?sica, mientras que su contempor\u225?neo H er\u225?clito le
reprocha ser un \u171?erudito\u187? y un \u171?habilidoso estaf
ador\u187?. Para sus disc\u237?pulos es el sabio perfecto y, al
mismo tiempo, un a encarnaci\u243?n de Apolo, por lo que le
tributan culto divino. Podemos consid erar ciertos los siguientes
datos: Pit\u225?goras naci\u243? el a\u241?o 572 en la isla de
Samos, no lejos de Mileto; despu\u233?s del 530 a. C. emigr\u243?
al sur de Italia por motivos pol\u237?ticos. All\u237? fund\u243?
una comunidad par ecida a una orden religiosa que permit\u237?a la
presencia de mujeres y ejerci\u 243? una notable influencia
pol\u237?tica. Muri\u243? el 480 a. C. Gui\u225?ndos e por la
m\u225?xima \u171?Sigue a Dios\u187?, los pitag\u243?ricos intentan
\pa r\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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tural expuesta por \u233?l en su di\u225?logo{\i Timeo.} A su
vez, Filolao abandon\u243? la imagen geoc\u233?ntrica del mundo y
situ\u243? en medio del cosmos un fuego central en torno al cual
orbitan todos l os cuerpos celestes. \par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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se y apagarse del fuego produce el dinamismo del mundo. 3)
Her\u225?clito mencio na parejas de opuestos que, a pesar de su
diferencia espec\u237?fica, se caracte rizan por dos rasgos
comunes. En el d\u237?a y la noche, el invierno y el verano , la
guerra y la paz, la vida y la muerte, la vigilia y el sue\u241?o,
lo h\u250 ?medo y lo seco, arriba y abajo, la basura y el oro, los
elementos no aparecen d e manera independiente sino que mantienen
una relaci\u243?n mutua como polos opu estos. Y su acci\u243?n
rec\u237?proca\u8212?Her\u225?clito la denomina \u171?gu
erra\u187?, a la que llama \u171?padre y rey de todas las
cosas\u187?\u8212?es u n proceso natural que mantiene unidas las
parejas de contrarios. \par\pard\plain \hyphpar} { 4) Las famosas
frases \u171?Todo fluye\u187? y \u171?Es imposible entrar dos vec
es en el mismo r\u237?o\u187? no son de Her\u225?clito, pero
debemos considerar aut\u233?nticos otros fragmentos en los que se
habla de un r\u237?o. Desde el pu nto de vista de la
\u171?filosof\u237?a natural\u187? y la \u171?ontolog\u237?a\
u187?, Her\u