001-003 Maya.GB.qxd 06.06.2007 15:19 Uhr Seite 2 (Schwarz/Process Black Auszug)

Edited by Nikolai Grubeassisted by Eva Eggebrecht and Matthias Seidel

DIVINE KINGS OF THE RAIN FOREST

MAYA

001-003 Maya.GB.qxd 06.06.2007 15:19 Uhr Seite 3 (Schwarz/Process Black Auszug)

10 Map of the Maya Region

11 PrologueNikolai Grube

20 Volcanoes and Jungle – a Richly VariedHabitatNikolai Grube

32 Cacao – the Beverage of the GodsNikolai Grube

34 The Origins of Maya Civilization – theBeginnings of Village LifeNorman Hammond

48 Obsidian – the Metal of the MayaNikolai Grube

50 The First Cities – the Beginnings ofUrbanization and State Formation inthe Maya LowlandsRichard D. Hansen

66 Jade – the Green Gold of the MayaElisabeth Wagner

70 Maya AgriculturePeter D. Harrison

80 Tortillas and Tamales – the Food of theMaize People and their GodsMarta Grube

86 From Chiefdoms to Statehood in theHighlands of GuatemalaFederico Fahsen

96 The Insignia of PowerNikolai Grube

98 Power in the West – the Maya andTeotihuacanSimon Martin

CONTENTS

Habitats and Early Horizons The Birth of States

114 Hieroglyphs – the Gateway to HistoryNikolai Grube

128 Bark Paper BooksNikolai Grube

130 Astronomy and MathematicsAlexander W. Voss

144 Solar Eclipses – Fearing the End of theWorldNikolai Grube

148 The Dynastic History of the MayaNikolai Grube and Simon Martin

172 Marriage Diplomacy – Women at theRoyal CourtStefanie Teufel

174 Under a Deadly Star – Warfare amongthe Classic MayaSimon Martin

186 A Game of Life and Death – the MayaBall GamePierre R. Colas and Alexander Voss

194 Unity in Space and Time – the MayaArchitectureAnnegrete Hohmann-Vogrin

216 The History of a Maya Settlement –Research Results from the Excavationsat XkipcheMichael Vallo

218 Maya Architecture at TikalPeter D. Harrison

232 Processions, Pilgrims, and Load-carriers – the Ceremonial RoadsMarkus Eberl

234 Understanding the Murals ofBonampakMary Miller

244 Grave Robbers in the JungleNikolai Grube

246 The Art of Classic Vase PaintingDorie Reents-Budet

Achievements Politics and Dynasty Architecture and Art

262 The Classic Maya GodsKarl Taube

278 Court Dwarfs – the Companions ofRulers and Envoys of the UnderworldChristian Prager

280 Maya Creation Myths andCosmographyElisabeth Wagner

294 Intoxication and EcstacyNikolai Grube

296 Uncovering the Dark Secrets of theMaya – the Archeology of Maya CavesJames E. Brady

308 Jaina – the Island NecropolisChristian Prager

310 Death and Conceptions of the SoulMarkus Eberl

322 Long Twilight or New Dawn?Transformations of Maya Civilizationin the Puuc RegionNicholas P. Dunning

338 ...and then it was Sculpted, thePrecious Stone – the MayaStonemasons and SculptorsElisabeth Wagner

340 The Dynamics of Maturing Statehoodin Postclassic Maya CivilizationMarilyn Masson

354 The Art of WeavingStefanie Teufel

356 The Martial Dynasties – the Postclassicin the Maya HighlandsFrauke Sachse

372 The Spanish Conquest of Yucatan andGuatemala in the 16th and 17thCenturiesChristian Prager

382 Kanek’ – the Last King of the ItzajMayaTemis Vayhinger-Scheer

384 Between Conformity and Rebellion –the Maya Society in the Colonial Period(1546-1811)Antje Gunsenheimer

Religious Beliefs From the Classic to the Postclassic The Colonial Era

396 The Search for Evidence – theScientific Discovery of the MayaEva Eggebrecht

412 Maya Cities – Lost, Excavated, andConservedMarkus Eberl

416 Maya Today – from Indios Deprived ofRights to the Maya MovementNikolai Grube

428 Glossary

442 Overview of Historical Sites

450 Selected Collections and Museums

456 Ruling Dynasties

460 Chronology

466 Remarks on the Writing andPronunciation of Mayan

467 Authors

468 Bibliography

474 Index

478 Picture Acknowledgments

480 Imprint

Exploration The Maya in the Present Appendix

N0 100 km

Quintana

Roo

Campeche

M E X I C O

Corozal

Orange Walk

BelizeDistrict

Distr ict

SouthernLagoonBELIZE

StannCreek

CayoDistr.Peten

GUATEMALA

Chiapas

Huehuetenango

Quiche

AltaVerapaz

ToledoDistr ict

HONDURAS

EL SALVADOR

BajaVerapaz

Tabasco

Yucatan

District

District

Izabal

NICARAGUA

P A C I F I C O C E A N

G U L F O F

H O N D U R A S

C A R I B B E A NGrij

alva

Usumacinta

New

LagoonRiver

LagoPeten Itza

Hon

do

NorthernLagoon

de IzabalLago

Motagua

C A M P E C H EB A Y

Presade la Angostura

Lago deAmatitlan

UsumacintaM

opan

Polochic

Grijalva

G U L F O F M E X I C O

Belize

San

Ped

ro

Laguna deTerminos

PresaNetzahualcoyotl

LagunaRosario

Lagode Yojoa

Aguan

Ulu

a

Archeological sites of Maya culture

National border

Mexican National border

National highway

Corals

Marshland

Tizimín

Valladolid

Cancun

CIUDAD DEGUATEMALA

Ciudad del

Tuxtla

Carmen

Campeche

Merida

Progreso

Motul

BelizeCity

Chetumal

CozumelTicul Mani

Chochola

Hecelchakan

Champoton

Senor

Orange Walk

FranciscoEscarcega

Balancan

Emiliano Zapata

Tenosiquede Pino Suarez

OcosingoChiapade Corzo

San Cristobalde Las Casas

Zinacantan Lacanja

Huehuetenango

CortesPuerto

Sta. LuciaCotzumalguapa

AntiguaGuatemala

Coban

NahaFlores

Belmopan

Quezaltenango

Escuintla

SanVicente

Santiago Atitlan

Escuintla

VillaFlores

Yajalon

Benito Juarez

Macuspana

Quimistan

Macuelizo

Santa Rosade Copan

Zacapa

Salama

Chiquimula

Cuilapa

Amatitlan

Sonsonate

Santa Tecla

Zacatecoluca

El Triunfo

Choluteca

Acajutla

PuertoQuetzal

Puerto Madero

Angel Albino Corzo

CarranzaVenustiano

Comitande Dominguez

PuertoBarrios

Choloma

La CeibaTela

Dangriga(Stann Creek)

San Mateo Ixtatan

Rio Chancala

Reforma Agraria

Villa deGuadalupe

Seyba Playa

Maxcanu

Dzilam Gonzales

Chichimila

Jutiapa

Poptun

San Pedro

Felipe CarrilloPuertoChunhuhub

Villa El Triunfo

Frontera

Teapa

Huixtla

Metapan

Florida

Usulutan

Chalatenango

El Estor

Morocoy

Champerico

Tegucigualpa

San Miguel

Villahermosa

Santa Ana

SanSalvador

Mejicanos

Gutierrez

Tapachula

Pijijiapan

La Union

Tonala

Ocozocoautla

Cintalapa

Tecpatan

Cardenas

ParaisoSanchezMagallanes

San Pedro Sula

Santa Rita

El Progreso

Siguatepegue

Comayagua

San Lorenzo

Juticalpa

Danli

Ocotal

Esteli

Somoto

Olanchito

San Antoniode Cortes

Yuscaran El Paraiso

Nacacome

La Esperanza

Yoro

Santa Ana

Marcala

Malpaso

Punta Morro

BalankancheCaves

BancoChinchorro

Lighthouse

Isla de Utila

TurneffeIslands

Caye CaulkerCaye Chapel

Long Caye

BlackbirdCaye

Northern Caye

Half Moon Caye

AmbergrisCaye

GloversReef

TobaccoCaye

Isla deCozumel

IslaMujeres

IslaContoy

IslaCancun

PuntaXicalango

PuntaHolchit

Punta Boxcohuo

Punta Nimun

Punta Nitun

Cabo Catoche

PuntaCelarain

Punta Pajaros

PuntaHerradura

BA

RR

IER

RE

EF

Ranguana Caye

Tom Owen´s Caye

Sapodilla Caye

The SnakeCayes

Cabo deTres Puntas Punta Sal

Punta Izopo

2849 m

PuntaSan Jose

Punta San Juan

Meseta Centra l de ChiapasM

aya

Mounta

ins

S ierra de los Cuchumatanes Sierra de Santa Cruz

S ier ra de las Mina s

S i e r r aM

ad

re

Sierradel

Gal

liner

o

3976 m

3834 m3518 m

3015 m

1550 m

2224 m

365 m

2450 m2470 m

2783 m

Lacandona

La

719 m

Victoria Peak 1120 m

27 m

C

he n e s

212 m

129 m

Volcan Atitlan 3596 m

MountainPine Ridge

Vaca

Plateau

P u u cYU

CA T A N

Pu

lltr

ou

ser

Sw

amp

2532 m

Volcan de Tacanaa

Volcan deTajumulco 4220 m

Ilopango 1950 m

V. de Santa Ana

Selva

2386 m

Isla de Roatan

Agua Azulcascades

Santa RitaCerros

Kohunlich

Noh Mul

La Milpa

Cuello LosAlacranes

Dzibanche

Lamanai

Rio Bec

Altun Ha Río AzulEl Mirador

Nakbe

Naachtun

Calakmul

ChicannaBecan

XpujilBalamku

Hormiguero

Uxul

Nadzcaan

ChichenItzaMayapan Yaxuna

Ek Balam

Tulum

CobaUxmal

Dzibilchaltun

Komchen

Okop

Sayil

Kabah

Oxkintoc

Mulchic

Labna

Xlapak

Loltun

Xcambo

Ake

Acanceh

Jaina

Edzna

TabasquenoDzibilnocac

Izamal

Kantunil

Culuba

Isla Cerritos

Ikil Xcaret

Tancah

Muyil

Xcalumkin

Santa RosaXtampak

El Meco

Hochob

Palenque

YaxchilanTonina

Comalcalco

TortugueroPomona

Bonampak

Altar deSacrificios

Itzan DosPilas

La Libertad

PiedrasNegras

La Pasadita

La Mar

El Cayo

El Rey

Chinkultic

Tikal

UaxactunNakum

Xultun

Seibal

Cancuen

Aguateca

La Florida

El Peru

Motul deSan Jose

El Zotz

YaxhaNaranjo

Topoxte

Ucanal

Caracol

Xunantunich

Nim LiPunit

Lubaantun

PusiljaXutilha

Naj Tunich

Sacul

Ixkun

Ixtutz

Machaquila

Copan

Quirigua

Izapa

AbajTakalik

Utatlan

Zaculeu

Mixco Viejo

Iximche

ZacualpaRío Amarillo

Cihuatan

CerenSan Andres

Tazumal

La Democracia

BilbaoEl Baul

Kaminaljuyu

Los Higos

Travesia

Chalachuapa

Islas de la Bahia

4092 m

“Who will be the prophet, who the priest, who deciphers the language of thehieroglyphs?” – this question is asked at the end of the Chilam-Balam book ofChumayel (1782), written by a Maya at the time of Spanish colonial rule; a Mayawho was obviously not able to read the mysterious signs of his forefathers. Noone knew anything of the large towns and cities; no one knew the names of theold kings; the inhabitants were not allowed to worship the ancient Gods anymore, whose clay images lay shattered on the ground. Seldom was the old clichéof a lost culture more appropriate than to that of the Maya. When the explorerJohn Lloyd Stephens arrived in the steaming jungle in 1840 and found the mighty monuments of the city of Copan, he also adopted the metaphor of loss:“It lay before us like a shattered bark in the midst of the ocean, her masts gone,her name effaced, her crew perished, and none to tell whence she came, to whomshe had belonged, how long on her voyage, or what caused her destruction.... Allwas mystery, dark impenetrable mystery....”

It was neither priest nor prophet who finally solved the mystery of thehieroglyphs, but scientists, travelers and adventurers. On foot, armed withmachetes, they marched through the jungle, constantly finding new cities in thegreen ocean of the tropical vegetation (ill. II). Sitting at desks, surrounded bypiles of books and computer printouts, they finally worked out the astronomy ofthis culture. Under the scorching sun, they knelt on the exposed floor of a house and, millimeter by millimeter, drew around the traces of a flattened jaw bonethat belonged to a Maya who was buried 3000 years ago. Like the stones of amosaic that slowly reveal a picture as the pieces are put together. But at last weknow something about the crew; we know the name of the boat, and even of thecaptain who steered it. And now, one hundred years after the rhetorical questionwas written in the Chilam-Balam book of Chumayel, scientists are slowly unraveling the mystery of the hieroglyphs.

A new image of the Maya

There are scarcely any other areas of archeology where interpretations andideas have changed so completely as in the field of Maya studies. It is entirelyappropriate to speak of a paradigm shift. Although up to just a few decades agoit was still believed that the Maya had been peace-loving maize farmers whoobeyed their priests’ exhortations to observe the stars and honor time, it has nowbeen proven that they were ruled over by kings and princes who were just as

11

PROLOGUENikolai Grube

power-hungry and vain as potentates elsewhere in the world. Although many books tell us that the Maya operated a system of clearing land by fire and grew only maize, we now know that they had in fact developed intensiveagricultural methods since the Preclassic period, digging raised beds and canalsin marshy areas, and planning intensive horticultural and irrigation systems.The extensive Preclassic cities in northern Guatemala were unknown until justa few years ago. New excavations there have caused us to date the beginning ofurban civilization back by about half a millennium. It has only been two or threeyears since we have learnt in what language the Maya scribes recorded their messages. New discoveries are being made all the time. Wherever archeologistsstart to dig, we know there will be surprises. Who would have guessed before1997 that the rubble around the Acropolis of Ek Balam concealed amazingly an

II Alfred Percival Maudslay in Chichen Itza. Glass platephotograph by H.N. Sweet, 1889The British scientist Alfred Percival Maudslay(1850–1931) was a pioneer of Maya research. At the ageof 30, he heard of the ruins of Copan and Quirigua anddecided to visit them. What was to have been a short staybecame a lifelong passion. Maudslay went on severallong trips, visiting and researching the cities ofPalenque, Copan, Quirigua, Chichen Itza, Tikal, andYaxchilan.

I Geomorphological map of the Maya regionThe region of Mesoamerica that is marked by theculture of the Maya covers an area of approximately500,000 km2, spread over five modern states.

Previous double page:Nobles with sacred bundles and incense pouches. Palenque,Chiapas, Mexico, bench in Temple 19, west side, limestone.Late Classic, 736 A.D.

almost undamaged stucco façade in the Chenes architectural style, the like of which is not seen anywhere else in the area? (ill. III) New finds are madeevery year that force us to rethink our ideas about the Maya and discard our old, familiar impressions of them.

However, it is this dynamism, with developments occurring on such a hugescale, that gives our preoccupation with the Maya its great attraction. Where elsein the world are complete sites of an ancient culture hidden deep in the jungle;where else are complete regions just blank areas on the archeological map?Where else do we know so little about the economic foundations of an ancientcivilization? And where else in the world have all the great cities of a culturesunk without trace, abandoned by their inhabitants for no apparent reason?

The field of Maya research is still in its infancy. It is such a new subject thatonly a few universities have any courses or faculties dedicated to scientific

research into the Maya. One consequence of this lack of academic support is thatwe have no answers to many of our questions that are of tremendous scientificand cultural-historical interest. All we do know is that the race is now onbetween research and the destruction of the material heritage of the Maya. Mayaworks of art are fetching horrendous sums of money on the art market. All these

12

III Stucco façade of the Acropolis. Ek Balam, Yucatan,Mexico; stone, covered with stucco and paintedBetween 1998 and 2000, archeologists of the MexicanInstitute of Anthropology and History (INAH) dug inthe archeological zone of Ek Balam, and found on theAcropolis a stucco frieze in a unique state of preservationand with a wealth of detail that has not been seen

elsewhere in the world of the Maya. What is surprising –apart from the quality of the sculpture – is thetransformation of the door into the wide-open jaws of asnake. This is something that is only seen in the Chenesarchitectural style, which flourished far away inCampeche.

13

objects have come from grave robberies, with art thieves rushing into the pyramids to loot objects with no regard for their archeological context.Archeologists lost this race long ago; most Maya sites have been emptied, andsome even completely destroyed, in order to fill the display cabinets of collectorsin Boston and Geneva. It would take a considerable amount of effort to researchthe remaining sites, to protect them and keep them for future generations. And it is not just a lack of resources that turns projects such as these into bureaucratic nightmares – but also the political division of the old land of theMaya into five modern states: Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and ElSalvador. Although these five states have now banded together to form a “RutaMaya,” an open-border, tourist-oriented integration of the Maya world aimed attravelers, scientific research into Maya culture has not been able to benefit fromthis project to the same extent.

Despite these hindrances, we now have a picture of the rise and developmentof Maya culture that makes former representations look like rough sketches.Whereas the thrust of older works focused on the exoticism of the Maya, on theirdifferentness and uniqueness, modern publications – such as we hope this bookwill reveal – show the Maya to have been people whose problems, intentions,and motives were not so different from those of other people all over the world (ill. IV). But for all the exoticism and romance that is associated with theword “Maya,” they have now taken their place among the other great ancientcivilizations – Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, and China.

We want to try and understand the Maya and reveal the internal logic of thehistory of this people. Thus the Maya also enter the stage of world history: eventoday, research continues to make new revelations that make our picture of thisancient culture clearer, and teach us that their monuments are much more thansilent witnesses to a long-gone culture.

IV Portrait head in stucco. Palenque archeological zone,Chiapas, Mexico; Late Classic, 600–900 B.C.; modeledstucco; H. 24.4 cm, W. 18.9 cm; Mexico City, MuseoNacional de AntropologíaThe representation of heads in Maya art is usuallyidealized; they contain no individual features. It appearsto have been only the artists in Palenque who attemptedto immortalize the actual features of the people theymodeled. This stucco head of an unknown Maya,presumably a prince or king of Palenque, is amasterpiece that leaves a lively impression of animportant person.

V The main plaza at Copan. Color lithograph byFrederick Catherwood, c. 1840“I would not dream of attempting to give an impression... of the exciting effects of the monuments, standingthere deep in the heart of a tropical forest, silent andfestive, of the strange and wonderful designs, beautifullychiseled ...” wrote John Lloyd Stephens, who in 1840,together with artist Frederick Catherwood, rediscoveredthe forgotten ruins of Copan and opened them up toresearch.

32

Europeans first encountered cacao in the year1502, when Columbus on his fourth journey to the Gulf of Honduras, came across a large Mayatrading canoe that measured over 40 m (131 ft.) inlength, if the story recounted by his son Ferdinandis to be believed. Not only was the canoe laden with metates (or grinding stones), copper items,fabrics and vessels, it also contained roots andgrains, and a type of wine made from maize.Almonds were also on board, and they appeared tobe particularly important to the Maya. Ferdinandnoted that if one fell on the ground, everyoneimmediately bent over and carefully picked it up, as though it were someone’s eye that had fallen out. These strange “almonds” were in fact the seedsof a tree that thrives in great heat, humidity and

the shade of the jungle giants; a tree that in 1753 the botanist Carl von Linné named TheobromaCacao. The Greek first part of the name means“food of the gods.” In Europe, the tree, its fruit andseeds, and the drink that was made from the pulverized, de-oiled seeds were all known by thename cacao.

The Maya had been cultivating the cacao tree at least since the Middle Preclassic period (600–300B.C.) on the Pacific coast, to the north of Belize andin the Lowlands of Tabasco, areas where the rain-fall, soil and climate offered ideal conditions for thisdelicate tree.

The fruit of the cacao tree grows straight fromits trunk (ill. 26). Its sweet and aromatic fleshcontains 30 to 40 almond-shaped cacao beans

CACAO – THE BEVERAGE OF THE GODSNikolai Grube

25 Cacao pod, cut open The cacao bean is embedded in thewhite flesh of the pod. Althoughonly the bean is used in themanufacture of chocolate today, thepeople of ancient Mesoamerica –including the Maya – also ate thedelightfully sweet pulp.

26 Cacao tree at Tapachula,Chiapas, MexicoUnlike European fruit trees, theblossom of the cacao tree grows inbunches directly on the trunk or onthe larger branches. They arepollinated only by mosquitoes,which is why the cacao tree thrivesin the shade of larger trees. Thecucumber-shaped pods are between10 and 20 cm long, and need aboutsix months to develop and ripen.Each pod contains up to 60 cacaobeans, which have to be fermented,dried and roasted before they canbe ground to make cacao powder.The Maya consume the aromaticpulp around the beans as well as thebeans themselves.

(ill. 25). The Maya prepared delicious dishes anddrinks from the pulp as well as the beans.

Almost everything we know about the way theMaya used and processed cacao has been learnt fromthe hieroglyphs on Maya ceramics (ill. 28). Vesselsare especially valuable if there is a dedication justbelow the rim describing its purpose as a “cacaocup” (ill. 29). The hieroglyph for the beverage is atthe end, formed by the three syllabic signs ka-ka-wa.The hieroglyphs preceding it describe, among otherthings, the various flavors. People drank bitter andsweet cacao, fruity cacao, cacao mixed with maize,and even chili-flavored cacao. It was made withwater, a custom that is still practiced in many partsof Mexico and Central America today, andsometimes thickened with a little ground maize or amaize dough. The foam was greatly appreciated,and the drink was whisked or – as is shown on somepainted ceramics – poured repeatedly from onecontainer into another.

The cacao drink was so precious that banquetsat which it was served were even immortalized onstone monuments. The large, beautifully paintedcylindrical containers of foamy cacao were probablypassed from mouth to mouth at state receptions,wedding celebrations and rituals (ill. 30). Driedcacao beans were also a precious commodity, andtraders took them as far as central Mexico where,although the drink was also highly appreciated, theclimate was not suitable for growing it. In thePostclassic period (909–1500 A.D.), the beans evenbecame a kind of currency used as payment forgoods and services.

28 Dedication text on a ceramicvessel. Provenance unknown; LateClassic, 600–900 A.D.; baked clay,painted; H. 21.3 cm, dia. 18.5 cm;private collection (Kerr 1837)Most of the painted cylindricalceramic vessels of the Classic period were precious cups used for drinking cacao. Most had adedication text just below the rim that referred both to the act of painting and its use. Thesecond part of these inscriptionsnamed the contents – cacao – aswell as the various methods ofpreparation and flavors. In thiscase, it was cacao “which comesfrom the tree of abundance”.

27 Cacao tree (branch with blossom and fruit); c. 1820; pen and ink lithograph,coloredIt was not until 1828 that a Dutch chemist, Coenraad Johannes van Houten,invented pulverized cacao, which replaced the old method of preparing cacaofrom fermented, crushed beans. Van Houten developed a hydraulic press,which was used to make a fine, long-lasting cacao powder with a very low fatcontent. Once it was easier to make and kept better, cacao became cheaperand available to a wider mass market. It remains as popular as ever withchildren and adults.

This is the completion of the script on the drinking cup for the (cacao) whichcomes from the treeof abundance

cacao ka

ka

wa

30 Stuccoed and painted cacao pot.Rio Azul, Peten, Guatemala,Structure C1 B, Burial 19; EarlyClassic, c. 500 A.D.; baked clay,stuccoed and painted; H. 23.0 cm,dia. 15.2 cm; Guatemala City, MuseoNacional de Arqueología y EtnologíaBurial 19 was discovered in 1984: anobleman’s tomb with an abun-dance of beautiful and excitingobjects, one of which was thisunusual ceramic pot. It is sealedwith a screwtop lid; both the lidand the vessel were inscribed withsix hieroglyphs, painted on stucco.The hieroglyphs on the lid translateas “This is the drinking vessel for witik cacao, for kox cacao”; witikand kox obviously refer to twoparticular flavors. Chemicalanalysis of residue inside this potconfirmed that it had indeedcontained cacao.

29 Early Classic vessel with cacaobeans. Found north of Uaxactun,Peten, Guatemala; end of the Early Classic (Tzakol 3), c. 500–590 A.D.; baked black clay withincised hieroglyphs; H. 13.2 cm, dia. 16.5 cm; Uaxactun, Museo JuanAntonio ValdésThe cacao vessels of the EarlyClassic were not as high as the tall,slim vessels of the Classic period.The incised hieroglyphs provide information about the object’sowner, and the hieroglyph ka-ka-wa indicates the contents. Thedried cacao beans in the photo-graph are, of course, modern.

THE ORIGINS OF MAYA CIVILIZATION – THE BEGINNINGSOF VILLAGE LIFE

Norman Hammond

35

Sawmill types slightly later (ill. 32). Another tool type, the “uniface,” probablyused as a hoe or adze, has been encountered at some of the same sites, and hasalso been found in situ at Colha, later a major Preclassic and Classic chert-working center in northern Belize (ill. 32). Both a uniface and a Lowe point werefound at Pulltrouser Swamp, north of Colha.

Radiocarbon dates from there, and from a soil profile at Colha which seemsto document both pre-agricultural and early farming activity, suggest that thepreceramic occupation dated between 2500 and 1400 B.C. Pollen from a core atCobweb Swamp at Colha indicates that maize was being grown by 2800 B.C.,with cotton and chili peppers present by around 1700 B.C. and manioc beinggrown as a root crop before 1000 B.C.; at Cob Swamp further north the pollenevidence suggests forest clearance around 2500 B.C.. (ill. 33).

Disturbance of the environment by human settlers, indicated by changes inthe flora and fauna from those typical of tropical forest, seems to begin about

The first evidence of human presence in the Maya region came soon after the end of the last Ice Age, when people had already been in the New World for several millennia. Although this evidence is sparse and scattered, it suggeststhat both Highland and Lowland zones had been penetrated by around 10,000years ago.

The best-documented Highland site is Los Tapiales in Guatemala, a hunters’campsite on the continental divide where obsidian and basalt tools, including aspear point, burins, and scrapers have been dated to 9600–8800 B.C. The LosTapiales spear point fragment had a shallow channel for mounting it on a shaft,also found in the Clovis culture in North America (10,200–9500 B.C.). In theLowlands, a chert point resembling the Clovis type was picked up at Ladyville,near Belize City (ill. 32).

These sites are tentatively put in the Paleo-Indian period of Mesoamericanprehistory before about 8000 B.C., although the lack of good context or datingleaves some cause for doubt. People were very probably hunters and gatherers.Stone tools, along with bones of extinct animals, some with marks of butchering, have been found at Loltun Cave in northern Yucatan, the Peten and Huehuetenango in the Highlands of Guatemala, but have yielded no radiocarbon dates. They could be Paleo-Indian, or from thesucceeding Archaic period (8000–2000 B.C.), when the Mesoamerican climatebecame warmer.

The path to settlement

During the Archaic period, people moved from foraging, using different camp sites each year, to collecting resources from a semi-permanent base camp, with occasional use of other locations for specializedpurposes such as hunting, gathering shellfish, or obtaining tools. The bestevidence for this so far comes from the valleys of Oaxaca and Tehuacan in the Mexican Highlands. In the Maya Highlands, the Santa Marta rock shelter in Chiapas has five episodes of Archaic occupation between 7600 and perhaps4000 B.C., while La Piedra del Coyote near Los Tapiales dates to 8700–4200 B.C.and a number of Archaic sites are known in the surrounding Highlands of El Quiche.

Indications that the Maya Lowlands were occupied in the preceramic periodare provided by projectile points from coastal Belize; the broad-stemmed Lowetype is tentatively dated around 2500–1900 B.C., and the narrower Allspice and

32 Chert tools from northern Belize. Preceramic period,9000–1200 BC.; Belmopan, Belize Department ofArcheologyTop left: Clovis-type projectile point; Ladyville,9000–1400 B.C., L. 9 cm; top center and right: Loweprojectile points with handle tenons, Sand Hill region,

2500–1900 B.C., L. 8.5 cm and 13.5; bottom left: Lowepoint, Pulltrouser Swamp, 2500–2000 B.C., L. 4.5 cm;bottom center: axe, hammered on one side, PulltrouserSwamp, 1300 B.C., L. 11 cm. These tools are currently theonly evidence of preceramic settlements of hunters andcrop farmers in the Maya Lowlands.

31 Seated figure. Uaxactun, Peten, Guatemala, StructureA18, Trench 31; Late Preclassic, 400 B.C.–250 A.D.; verdite;H. 25.3 cm; Guatemala, Museo Nacional de Arquelogía yEtnologíaThis carefully polished figure was offered, together with

a variety of eccentric flint and obsidian pieces, when thebuilding was dedicated. The cheeks are adorned with thehieroglyph k’in, “sun,” which in the Late Classic was,among other things, an attribute of the sun god.

Clovis point, Ladyville, Belize Lowe point, Ladyville, Belize

Lowe point,Ladyville, Belize

point from Colha, Belizeaxe from Colha, Belize

0 15 cm

2500 B.C., but agriculture may well have remained a minor constituent of aneconomy based also on gathering in the forest. Many undated coastal plainlocations sampled by the American archeologist Richard S. MacNeish may wellprove to have been occupied during the Archaic: artifacts such as milling stonessuggest an increasing reliance on collected and processed plant foods.

Phases of settlement in the Preclassic

No settlement sites are yet known in the Lowlands of Belize and Peten fromthe time of the initial forest clearings around 2500 B.C., or for more than athousand years after that time. The oldest so far is Cuello, occupied from 1200B.C., and the first Preclassic Maya settlement to be extensively examined;hitherto, Preclassic deposits had usually been found buried beneath substantialconstructions of the Classic period. Although a Classic ceremonial precinct wasthe most prominent feature of the site, which covers an area of 1.6 squarekilometers (0.78 square miles), research focused on Platform 34, a large, flat-topped mound which had only minor occupation after 400 A.D. but deepstratified deposits of Preclassic date with excellent preservation of botharchitecture and organic remains (ill. 34).

Fourteen major phases of architectural development span some 1600 years(1200 B.C.–400 A.D.). The earliest occupants of the Swasey phase (1200–900 B.C.)built only in perishable timber and thatch, with earth floors, but later houses hadplaster-daub walls and stood on thin floors of plaster and limestone rubble; by900 B.C., they were set around a plaster-surfaced courtyard some 15 meters (49 ft.) across. These timber-framed, palm-thatched houses closely resembledmodern Maya houses in Yucatan (ill. 35).

The houses stood on platforms of rubble and earth barely 30 cm (12 in.) highand rounded at the sides, and had floors of ground limestone. Later, in theBladen phase (900–650 B.C.), the platforms were enlarged, using theirpredecessors as construction cores. The sides of the earlier platforms were rippedaway, leaving just a raw stump: the scattering of jade beads in the resulting scarindicates that the demolition was a ritual event, not just a practical process.

Reconstruction of the appearance of these buildings can be difficult, but at leastone of the Cuello buildings of this period (Structure 323) was over 11 meters (36ft.) long and half that in width, standing a meter (3 ft.) high above the courtyardfloor. One earlier building (Structure 326) escaped almost intact because it hadbeen buried and built over (ill. 36), and is the best surviving example of an EarlyMiddle Preclassic structure.

33 Pollen diagram of the Cob Swamp in northern BelizeThe pollen diagram contains indications of early cropfarming c.2500–2000 B.C. It shows a sudden rise incharcoal quantities with a simultaneous reduction inforest areas and an increase in the pollen of herb-likeplants and – for the first time – cultivated plants. Similarstages of early crop farming “taking over” the landscapeare also seen in Europe.

34 House foundations. Cuello, Belize; current excavations,photo from 1980To the left and in the middle of this 30 x 10 m excavationsite are the remains of houses dating back to the MiddlePreclassic era (1100–700 B.C.); in the background are

remains of Late Preclassic buildings (200 B.C.), and on thewest side is a pyramid that was built toward the end ofthe Preclassic era (200–300 A.D.). The older buildings hadbeen overbuilt by Platform 34; its white stucco remainsand infill material can be seen along the top of the dig.

Conc

entra

tion

in10

0,00

0 po

llen

0

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

100

Char

coal

Mor

acea

e

Culti

gens

Chen

o-Am

s

Aste

raca

e

Borre

ria

Poac

eae

Alte

rnan

ther

aCl

adiu

m

Cype

race

ae

Typh

aTr

ema

0 50 100 150 0 50 90 5 0 50 90 0 020

36

37

36 Apse house. Cuello, Belize, Structure 326, platform;Middle Preclassic, 900–800 B.C.; 8 × 4 mThe post holes for the wooden timber frame are clearlyvisible. The fragments of the loam-plastered wallsconfirm that this house was built in a method similar tothat of Maya buildings from historical times (ill. 34). Thedeep trough to the right of the picture is a new grave.The floors of later buildings are seen in the background.

35 Modern Yukatek houseThe picture shows a modern Maya house (approx. 8.5 ×3.5 m), timber framed with loam and stucco walls and aroof made of guano and palm fronds. The apse-shapedfloor plan and building method are similar to thePreclassic houses excavated in Cuello (see ills. 36 and 37).

AchioteA Spanish term for a tree of the Bixa orellanaspecies, and also for the orange-yellow toreddish dye that is made from the seeds of this tree. Achiote is used in food preparationfor its aroma.

Acropolis (Greek, “high city”)In Maya archeology, an acropolis describes anyplatform that serves as a base for severalbuildings. An acropolis could represent a placeto honor the gods and ancestors (like the North Acropolis of Tikal), or equally, form aliving complex (like the Central Acropolis ofthe same city).

Adobe (Spanish, “air-dried brick”)A type of clay brick that was used to buildhouses in pre-Columbian times. Because it wasunfired, it weathered quickly.

AgaveA plant group with about 300 varieties.Present-day Maya still use the leaves to brewan alcoholic drink that was documented in Classic hieroglyphs. Agave leaves aresometimes depicted projecting from clay jugson colorfully illustrated ceramic vessels; thecontent of these jugs is indicated by theinscription placed on them: chi (fermentedagave drink).

Aguada (Spanish, “waterplace”)A funnel- or bowl-shaped → cenote filledwith sand, in which rainwater collects.

Ajaw (Mayan, “Lord,” “King”)A title for rulers, princes, kings, and generalnoblemen. In a narrower sense, ajaw describesthe highest political office of the Maya inClassic times. The attribute k’uhul (divine)often follows the word ajaw, above all in → emblem glyphs. In the calendar, ajaw means both the last day in → Tzolk’inand the time unit for the → Short Count.

Akan (God A)Akan is the god of alcoholic drinks, hallucinogenic substances, and presumably of the hallucinations themselves. In PaulSchellhas’ list of gods, he is named as God A. His distinguishing marks are the signsfor darkness, death, and magic on his head.Paintings on vases often show him at drinkingorgies, where alcohol is administered bothorally and rectally.

AltarBefore stelae, most round stone sacrifice tableslay on the ground or on three stone feet. It isthought that offerings and censers were placedon them. Square and rectangular altars seemto have first appeared in the Late Classic.Many are sculpted and inscribed with the yearof their erection.

Apron moldingA special façade construction of a steppedpyramid base that was particularly popular incentral Peten, Tikal, and Uaxactun. The frontof the step was divided into an inclined zone atthe top and an underlying recessed zone.Because the projecting section could belikened to an overhanging apron, this profilewas named apron molding. The effects oflight and shadow intensify the impact of theregular horizontal alternation.

Apse houseTypical Lowland farmhouses, built of wood orstone above an oval platform, had rounded,narrow sides – hence the term apse house. The roof was made of straw from the guanopalm (Sabal mexicana).

AtoleA drink made from maize dough and waterthat is flavored with various additives, such as salt or honey. The term atole comes fromAztec, but Classic Maya ceramic vessels oftenhave the term ul on them. The contents ofthese vessels are more closely defined as sak ul(white atole) or sak ch’aj ul (white, bitter orunsweetened atole).

AztecsThe Aztecs are counted among the → Nahua

group of people in central Mexico, whoseformer capital Tenochtitlan is at the presentcenter of Mexico City. In about 1300, theAztecs expanded into the most politicallypowerful confederation in the region. Theyhad an efficient administration at theirdisposal and forced the conquered peoples topay tribute. In 1519, their well-known rulerMontezuma II received the conqueror HernánCortés who, with his forces, shortly afterwardsincorporated the Aztec empire into theSpanish world empire.

Back loomAn appliance for weaving textiles. It is held in place by a strap, and is also known as a belt loom. One end of the strap is secured to afixed object, while the other end is placedaround the hips.

Bajo (Spanish, “Lowland”)A term for a loam-covered, often extensivedepression in which water accumulates. In the south of the Yucatan peninsula, bajos form a marsh.

BakabA title with unknown meaning, which in theLate Classic was mostly reserved for therulers. Some researchers equate it with thesimilar sounding term → Batab’, which in the Postclassic in northern Yucatan identified an important office.

Bak’tunA time interval of 144,000 days, comprised of 20 → K’atun of 7,200 days. In the → Long Count, it is normally the largest dating unit.

Balam (Mayan, “jaguar”)This is the largest predatory cat found inMexico and Central America (Felix onca).In the Classic, the word Balam was frequentlyused as a component of rulers’ names; forexample, the prince of the city-stateTortuguero was called Balam Ajaw (Jaguar-Lord). The jaguar was certainly both feared and honored by the Maya.Therefore, portrayals of rulers enthroned on a jaguar pelt are found on numerous ceramic objects. But the jaguar is also acreature of the underworld (→ Xibalba);→ Popol Wuj told of a mythological jaguarlair that was positioned somewhere in thecosmos, in which the Hero Twins wereimprisoned as a test of their courage.

Balche’A mildly alcoholic drink that is made by mixing water with the fermented bark of the Balche’ tree (Lonchocarpuslongistylus). Today, it is consumed only on ritual occasions, and honey is added for sweetness.

Ball gameA game with a rubber ball (→ Zapote), calledpitzil by the Maya, which is played throughoutMesoamerica. The ball could not be touchedwith hand or foot, but, as is still the case inseveral parts of Mexico, was struck with thehips. In the Classic, the Maya laid out specialI-shaped playing fields, with beveledboundary walls that allowed the ball toricochet. Points were scored either when theball flew through a ring fixed above theplaying field or when it hit a marker stone onthe ground. Nothing is known about teamsizes in the Classic. Inscriptions often show theruler of a city state as a ballplayer, such as AjPitzil (“He, the ballplayer”). Whether humansacrifice was offered in connection with theball game, as is sometimes suggested, has notbeen proved beyond doubt.

Bark pestleA corrugated stone slab, about the size of thepalm of the hand, which was used in theproduction of paper. The tool was grooved atthe edges to allow the operator to secure agood grip. The bark of the amate fig wasworked with the pestle until a paper-likefibrous material resulted.

Batab’Next to → Jalach Winik, this was the highest political office of the Postclassic inseveral Maya states in the Yucatan peninsula.The title is derived from the Yukatek Mayanword bat (stone axe) and means axe carrier.The Batab’ office holder of the variousfederated states cited a common ancestor fromtime to time.

428

GLOSSARYDaniel Graña-Behrens and Nikolai Grube

Head of the Maize God. Copan, Honduras, Structure 10L-22;Late Classic, 715 A.D.; tuff; H.32 cm; Copan, Centro Regional deInvestigaciones Arqueológicas, Instituto Hondureño deAntropología e Historia

Head of a Pawajtuun. Copan. Honduras, Structure 10L-11; Late Classic, 769 A.D.; tuff; H. 80 cm

Abaj TakalikArtificially raised earth platforms, publicplazas, and courtyards surrounded bybuildings form the center of this Preclassicsite. There are more than 20 sculptures andinscribed stelae in Abaj Takalik, and they areregarded as the precursors of the stonemonuments in Classic Maya Lowlands. Theyare dated between 37 B.C. and 126 A.D.

AcancehBeneath the modern township of the samename lies the archeological site of Acanceh,which had its heyday in the Late Preclassicand Early Classic. The core of the settlement isdominated by the main pyramid, on whichmonumental stucco masks have recently beenexposed. To the south of this construction liesa second building, on which the stucco façade,ornamented with figures, reveals influencefrom Teotihuacan.

AguatecaThis site, on the high plateau of LagoPetexbatun, which falls away steeply on allsides, was discovered in 1957. The palace and ceremonial complex in the center of the city bear witness to the period in the late 8th century when Aguateca flourished. Theregion around Aguateca was, at this time, the scene of numerous warlike engage-ments, so the site needed to be protected with defensive measures. To add to the naturalgeological protection from the steep slope and

the ravine that runs through the ceremonialcenter of Aguateca, the inhabitants built longpalisade walls within and around the core ofthe settlement. Despite being well fortified,the city was conquered and burned at the endof the 8th century.

AkeAke, which lies about 35 kilometers (22 miles) east of Merida, was discovered by John Lloyd Stephens in 1842. Along withAcanceh and Izamal, Ake is one of the few sitesin the northern Lowlands where the buildingsoriginating in the Early Classic appear to stillhave been inhabited well into the Postclassic.Having said this, Ake was definitely at its peakin the Classic (300–950 A.D.).

Altar de SacrificiosOne of the earliest settlements in the centralLowlands, Altar de Sacrificios on RioUsumacinta should be looked at in the light ofits position on a major trading route. Finds,which came to light during the discovery of thesite in the 19th century, indicate that it wasfounded in the Middle Preclassic. The completeexcavation was not accomplished until the lastthird of the 20th century. Numerous stelae andother memorials, erected by its rulers between455 and 849 A.D., indicate a cultural blossomingof the city during the late Classic.

Altun HaThe earliest traces of a settlement in Altun Ha

can be traced back to the Middle Preclassic,around 1,000 B.C. However, the monumentalarchitecture still visible today originated in theClassic. With more than 300 identifiablebuildings and a number of rich upper classburials in the city, it is likely that the rulers ofAltun Ha profited from a trade networkbetween the central Lowlands and theCaribbean coast. During this time of greatwealth, 8,000 to 10,000 people would havelived in Altun Ha.

BalamkuWith an area of just a square kilometer (less than a mile), Balamaku is a relativelysmall site, which comprises three architecturalgroups. The site was first discovered in 1990,and is held in particularly high regard due tothe discovery of a spectacular stucco façade,which originates from between 300 and 500A.D. The multicolored frieze of this façade,with a length of about 17 meters (56 feet) anda height of more than four meters (13 feet),counts as one of the finest stucco works of theMaya Lowlands.

BecanThe earliest traces of a settlement in Becanprobably date back to the 7th century B.C.Between 200 and 600 A.D, the central area ofthe site was enclosed by a ditch and a defensive

ring of palisade walls; seven bridges providedaccess to the center. In the Late Classic, between600 and 730 A.D., the center was developedfurther, with the addition of extravagantpalaces and temples. Becan, which was dis-covered in 1934, was inhabited until 1450 and istypical of the Rio Bec style of architecture.

BonampakThe polychrome wall paintings of Bonampak(Mexico), discovered in 1946, are among themost important artworks of Mesoamerica.They are part of a group of pictorial andwritten testimonies that make it possible to re-construct the course of wars, rituals, and otherevents in the life of the Maya nobility. Thecenter of Bonampak comprises three largearchitectural building complexes dating frombetween 600 and 800 A.D. Inscriptions on thepaintings, on the door lintel in Structure 1,and on the sculpted stela standing in the mainplaza, report on the life of the rulers YajawChan Muwaan and his son, who governedbetween 780 and 792 A.D. With the coming topower of Yajaw Chan Muwaan, the Bonam-pak dynasty received a boost, much neededafter losing their independence to wars againstTonina hegemony in the previous decade.

Cahal PechThe ruins of the significant medium-sized

442

OVERVIEW OF HISTORICAL SITESChristian Prager and Nikolai Grube

Chichen Itza, Yucutan, Mexico. Tatiana Proskouriakoff’s reconstruction drawing of the sacral center illustrating theimposing monumental architecture of this important site.

Basel (Switzerland)Museum der Kulturen

Dr Gustav Bernouilli, a doctor and naturalistfrom Basel, who in the course of an expeditionthrough the Peten in 1877 also visited Tikal,laid the foundations for the finds from theMaya area that are displayed in this museumtoday. With the permission of the Guatemalangovernment, Bernouilli removed threewooden door lintels from Temples I and IVand shipped them to Basel; they arrived therein 1878, shortly after the death of the researcher.The middle piece of lintel 3, decorated inrelief, originated from Temple I. Lintel 2, fromTemple IV, is completely preserved except forone beam. All beam parts from lintel 3 fromTemple IV, which was similarly dismantled,are present in the Basel museum: it is the mostcomplete of the three lintels from Tikal. Apainted dish with the portrait of the MaizeGod, which Bernoulli found in Tikal, alsopassed into the museum’s possessions.

Berlin (Germany)Ethnologisches Museum, Staatliches Museen zuBerlin, Preußischer Kulturbesitz

Maya relics form an essential component of the exhibition “American Archaeology” in theEthnologisches Museum, Berlin. Since thefoundation of the museum in 1873, thisdivision has been constantly expanded. AdolfBastian (1826–1905), the first director ofethnology at the museum, is to be thanked forthe fact that, along with other acquisitions, theJimeno collection from Yucatan was broughtto Berlin in 1881. Numerous Jaina figurinesbelong to this collection. Other Maya objects

times. A stela with a representation of a Maya ruler, and a fragment of a relief tabletwith inscriptions from the region aroundBonampak, as well as several fragments ofsculpture from Copan, are among thetreasures of the Brussels collection. Theprecise place of origin of numerous otheritems, such as the intricately painted and reliefceramic vessels and ceramic figurines, is,however, not known.

Cambridge (MA, US)Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology

Much of the Mesoamerican stock of thePeabody museum in Cambridge is con-solidated from several individual collectionsfrom the Maya area. Included here arenumerous pieces that were assembled duringearly research trips commissioned by themuseum. Furthermore, the collections of thearcheological section of the CarnegieInstitution of Washington, after its closure in1958, were transferred to the stock of thePeabody museum. Edward H. Thompson,who led one of the early expeditions, broughtto Cambridge artifacts made of jade, wood,and other materials, which he salvaged duringthe excavation of the Great Cenote of ChichenItza. Sculptures from Piedras Negras, andrelief tablets 1 and 2, were handed over to themuseum by Teobert Maler. Above all, thecollection contains the Copan sculptures,which were found not only during the earlymuseum expeditions, but also from theexcavations of the Carnegie Institution. Theseinclude a chair statue and several blocks of theHieroglyph Stairway from Structure 10L-26, a

450

are ceramic figurines and vessels from AltaVerapaz, which were entrusted to the museumby Erwin P. Dieseldorff. Eduard Seler, whobetween 1890 and 1911 made many journeys toMiddle America, also brought quite a fewthings to Berlin from the Maya area. Many ofthese objects originated in Chacula, which isalso known by the name Quen Santo. Seler wasalso able to acquire the Alvarado collection forthe Berlin museum, with items from thesurroundings of the Guatemalan city ofAntigua, as well as painted ceramics. Out-standing pieces in the collection include stelaein the Cozumalhuapa style from the ruin siteof the same name in southern Guatemala. Oneof the most recent acquisitions of the BerlinMuseum is an Early Classic vessel engravedwith a burial scene.

Boston (MA, US)Museum of Fine Arts

The Museum of Fine Arts in Boston holds one of the most outstanding collections of painted ceramic vessels of thevarious Maya cultures. The former privatecollection is available to the museum only as a long-term loan. One of the finest pieces isthe “cosmic plate,” decorated with the mostcomplete representation of the Maya universethat is known.

Brussels (Belgium)Musées Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire

The American division of the Musées Royauxd’Art et d’Histoire in Brussels accommodatesan important collection of artifacts from Maya

Cleveland, The Cleveland Museum of Art; shell with arepresentation of a smoker; provenance unknown; LateClassic, 600–900 A.D.

Washington D.C., Dunbarton Oaks Research Library andCollection; jade pendant with the outline of a noble; provenance unknown; Early Classic, 250–400 A.D. (Kerr 2839)

Guatemala City, Museo Nacional de Arqueologia yEtnologiá; ocarina in the form of a noble with rattles; Nebaj,El Quiche, Guatemala; Terminal Classic, 800–900 A.D.

Zurich, Museum Rietberg; stela with a standing Mayanoble; provenance unknown; Late Classic, 7th century A.D.

very impressive bust of the Maize God fromStructure 10L-22, as well as numerous otherfaçade sculptures. Archeological undertakingsof the Peabody Museum and the CarnegieInstitution since the 1920s have expanded theinventory of the museum with finds from theMaya sites of Altar de Sacrificios, BartonRamie, Holmul, Labna, and Uaxactun. Theexcavations of the Carnegie Institution ofWashington set the standards for quality ofdocumentation and publication of finds.

Campeche (Mexico)Museo de Las Estelas “Román Piña Chán”

An 18th century colonial fortification hasserved, since 1985, as a museum for the stonemonuments that were found in the mostimportant ruin site in the federal state ofCampeche. The exhibits include stelae, doorjambs, and door lintels from various discoverysites in Campeche like, for example,Xcalumkin, Edzna, Jaina, and Itzimte, as wellas columns from Tunkuyi and Cansacbe.Further monuments from the ruins of theChenes region also belong in the collection.The museum was dedicated to Román PiñaChán from Campeche, one of Mexico’s mostfamous archeologists.

Chigago (IL, US)Field Museum of Natural History

The Mesoamerican section of the NaturalHistory Museum in Chicago houses, amongothers, an important collection of ceramicvessels, which were collected in the 1900sduring various expeditions to Maya ruin sitesin Yucatan and Belize. The pieces are of

SELECTED COLLECTIONS AND MUSEUMScompiled by Elisabeth Wagner

Australia

CanberraAustralian National Gallery Parkes PlaceCanberra, ACT, 2601

MelbourneNational Gallery of Victoria 285–321 Russell StreetMelbourne, VIC 3000

Austria

ViennaMuseum für Völkerkunde Neue Hofburg1014 Vienna

Belgium

BrusselsMuseés Royaux d’Art et d’HistoireParc du Cinquantenaire 101000 Brussels

Belize

Belize CityBliss Institute Southern ForeshoreBelize City

BelmopanDepartment of Archaeology East BlocBelmopan

Canada

MontrealThe Montreal Museum of Fine Arts Jean-Noël Desmarais Pavilion1380 Sherbrooke Street WestMontreal, Quebec H3G 2T9

TorontoGardiner Museum of Ceramic Art 111 Queen’s ParkToronto, Ontario M5S 2C7Royal Ontario Museum 100 Queen’s ParkToronto, Ontario M5S 2C6

VancouverMuseum of Anthropology at the University of British Columbia 6393 N.W. Marine DriveVancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z2

Chile

SantiagoMuseo Chileno de Arte Precolombino Bandera 361Santiago

Costa Rica

San JoseMuseo Nacional Calle 17, Avenidas Central y SegundaSan JoseMuseo Nacional del Jade “Fidel Tristán Castro” Instituto Nacional de Seguros (I.N.S), Piso 11Avenida 7, Calle 9 y 11 San Jose

Denmark

CopenhagenNationalmuseetNy Vestergade 101471 Copenhagen

El SalvadorSan SalvadorMuseo Nacional de AntropologíaDr. David Joaquín Guzmán

Avenida La Revolución/Carretera a Santa TeclaCol. San BenitoSan Salvador

ChalchuapaMuseo Regional de Chalchuapa Sitio Arqueológico TazumalChalchuapa, Santa Ana

CerenMuseo Joya de Ceren Sitio Arqueológico Joya de CerenCeren, La Libertad

San AndresMuseo de San Andrés Sitio Arqueologico de San AndresSan Andres, La Libertad

Finland

HelsinkiDidrichsen Art Museum Kuusilahdenkuja 100340 Helsinki

France

BordeauxMusée d’EthnographieUniversité Victor Segalen Bordeaux 23 Place de la Victoire33076 Bordeaux

ParisBibliothèque Nationale de France, Département des Manuscrits, Richelieu-Louvois58 Rue de Richelieu et 2 Rue Louvois 75002 ParisMusée de l’Homme Musée National d’Histoire NaturellePalais de Chaillot, 17 Place du Trocadero75116 Paris

Germany

BerlinEthnologisches Museum, StaatlicheMuseen zu Berlin, Preußischer Kulturbesitz

453

Copán Ruinas, Museo de Arqueología; eccentric flint with a representation of the god K’awiil; Copan, Honduras; Late Classic, 763 A.D.

Campeche, Museo Histórico Fuerte de San Miguel; jade mask with obsidian and mother of pearl; Calakmul,Campeche, Mexico; Late Classic, 600–900 A.D.

Mexico City, Museo Nacional de Antropología; ball gamecourt monument in limestone; Chinkultic, Chiapas, Mexico;Early Classic, 591 A.D.

Mexico City, Museo Nacional de Antropología; ceramicincense burner; Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico; LatePostclassic, c. 1350

Lansstraße 814195 Berlin

DresdenBuchmuseum der Sächsischen Landesbibliothek,Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Dresden Marienallee 1201099 Dresden

FreiburgMuseum für VölkerkundeAdelhauserstraße 3379098 Freiburg

HamburgHamburgisches Museum für Völkerkunde Rothenbaumchaussee 64 20148 Hamburg

CologneRautenstrauch Joest Museum für Völkerkunde Ubierring 4550678 Cologne

MannheimVölkerkundliche Sammlungen der StadtMannheim im Reiss-Museum Neubau D568159 Mannheim

MunichStaatliches Museum für VölkerkundeMaximilianstraße 4280538 Munich

StuttgartLinden – Museum Stuttgart Staatliches Museum für Völkerkunde Hegelplatz 170174 Stuttgart

Great Britain

LiverpoolNational Museum and Galleries on Merseyside,Liverpool Museum William Brown StreetLiverpool L3 8EN

LondonBritish Museum, The Mexican Gallery Great Russell Street London WC1B 3DG

ADDRESSES

1800 1700 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 900 800

1800 1700 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 900 800No

rther

n Lo

wla

nds

Sout

hern

Low

land

sHi

ghla

nds

Oth

er c

iviliz

atio

ns/

Mes

oam

erica

Euro

pe/A

frica

/Asia

2040–1650 Egypt, Middle Kingdom

1700 Minoan Cretan writing as linear writing

1600 Phoenician alphabet

8000 Los Tapiales. Resting place for hunter-gatherers,earliest finds in Highlands of Guatemala, includingflint spear points and flakes

after 1555 Egyptian NewKingdom after expulsion of the Hyksos

Minoan 17th century B.C.;snake goddess; Fayence: Heraklion,

Arch. Museum

Tutankhamun, gold mask from the innersarcophagus; c. 1347–1339 B.C.

Cairo, Egyptian Museum

Late Shang period, c. 1200–1000 B.C.Ritual serving vessel; Peking, National Museum

c. 960–925 King Solomon

814 Phoenicians from Tyre found Carthage

753 Founding of Rome

587 Destruction of Jerusalem by Nebucadnezar

551-479 Confucius founds an austere moralphilosophy

E A R L Y P R E C L A S S I C M I D D L E P

Loltun Cave, c. 900 B.C.

Monument 12 fromChalchuapa, 1000–400 B.C.

Wedges from Cuello, 1800 B.C.

Head of figure from Cuello, c. 1300 B.C.

Barra ceramic, oldestMesoamerican ceramic

c. 1600 B.C.

1000–600 Swasey ceramic in Cuello. Earlyartistic epoch of the Maya culture in Belize,stucco platforms, elaborate ceramics, useof cultivated crops

600–250 Heyday of Nakbe, one of themost important centers of the Middle Preclassic in central Peten, monumentalarchitecture and sculpted stonemonuments

1500–1200 Ocos ceramic. Early Preclassic pottery onthe Pacific coast gives clues to permanent settlementand villages with a population of fishermen and farmers

1000–500 Las Charcas phase of Kaminaljuyu.Population growth in Guatemala valley, production offigurines and sculpture

1200–900 San Lorenzo (Olmec city)

1200–800 Tlatilco culture in central Mexico

900–600 Classical epoch of La Venta(Olmec city)

Monument 3 from San JoseMogote, 900–400 B.C.

During the last ice age, nomadic hunter-gatherers settled the American continent in several waves ofimmigration across the Bering Straits. Oldest finds in the Maya area from the time 9000–7000 B.C. includestone implements like flakes and spearpoints, together with the remains of animals that are extinct today, suchas the mammoth. On the coasts, the settlers specialized in the collection of crustaceans and shellfish, and inabout 5000 B.C., maize was planted for the first time. In about 2000 B.C., the first permanent settlementsappeared, along with agriculture and the manufacture of ceramics.

In the family of Mayan languages, many soundsexist that, to an English-speaking reader, willseem unusual (as things that sound natural to usare strange to the Maya.) The first Spanishclerics began to learn the Mayan languages in the 16th century, and began to writegrammars and dictionaries, with the intentionof converting the Maya and incorporating theminto the new colonial empire. They first had tocreate characters or character groups for thesounds that were unknown to them.Because various orders preached in the Mayaarea and the individual languages were notalphabetically recorded together, severaldifferent methods of spelling developed. Therules that counted for one Mayan languagecould be quite irrelevant to another. Aninclusive orthography for the alphabetic writingof all Mayan languages came about only in 1989.It was developed by the Maya themselves, topromote the communication and thereby thepolitical and cultural cohesion of the variousgroups. At first, this official book of rules wasfollowed only by the Maya of Guatemala.However, it has meanwhile also been acceptedin Mexico and is being increasingly respected asthe standard by researchers. The pronunciation

of the letters is modeled extensively on Spanish,but has a list of peculiarities:• In all Mayan languages, there are glottal as

well as simple consonants; between theirarticulation and that of the followingvowel, the glottis is closed for a fraction ofa second. Glottal consonants are markedwith an apostrophe(’):

kab’ “earth” k’ab’ “hand”koj “puma” k’oj “mask”tzutz “lard” tz’utz’ “kiss”pat “shape ” p’at “leave

something something behind”

Vowels as well as consonants can be glottal.It sounds as though the breath is held for a short time immediately afterpronunciation.

• In the Mayan languages of the GuatemalanHighlands, a guttural q is pronounced withthe back of the tongue, near the soft palate;it sounds like a k.

• The letter combination tz indicates a silentsibilant in which the tongue tip pressesagainst the back of the teeth.

• x represents phonetically the English sh.• ch is pronounced as in Spanish, that is, like

the English tch in kitchen.

• In many Mayan languages and also in the language of hieroglyphs, differentmeanings are linked to short or longvowels. Long vowels are shown by a re-peated letter. Thus chak means red,whereas Chaak is the name of the RainGod.

• In hieroglyphic script, the backgroundsound j would be distinguished from theglottal h. The latter would be softlypronounced and could in many cases evenbe dropped, but the former, as in Spanish,would sound similar to ch as in loch.

The spelling of Mayan words in this bookis based on this orthography, except for a few place names like Dzibilchaltun(Tz’ibilchaltun) and Tikal (Tik’al), whichhave been established in this form for a long time. Standardization would belinguistically sensible, but would result inold and new maps no longer agreeing.

466

Most archeological sites, contrary toappearances, do not carry authentic oldMaya names, but rather those that weregiven to them in the 19th or 20th centuriesby the explorers or researchers. Many of the names are of Spanish origin likeCaracol “snail,” others are new Mayacreations like Xunantunich “stone of theyoung woman.” The original Mayanames were forgotten before or during the Spanish invasion, and are only nowbeing deciphered again. We have knownfor a while that Tikal was called Mutulin the Classic and Palenque was calledLakamha’. Even so, the familiar terms will continue to be used because arenaming of the archeological sites wouldlead to great confusion.

Examples for pronunciation of Mayanwords for English speaking readers:

Xunantunich shunantunitshUxmal ushmalKaminaljuyu kaminalchuyuJoyab’aj choi ab-ach

REMARKS ON THE WRITING ANDPRONUNCIATION OF MAYAN

Nikolai Grube

Dr. James BradyLos Angeles, California State University,Department of Anthropology, AssociateProfessor; leader of excavation projects incaves in the Maya area, including NajTunich and the caves of Dos Pilas; researchemphasis: cave archeology.

Dr. Pierre Robert ColasBonn, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Institut für Altamerikanistikund Ethnologie, scholarship holder from theGerman Research Foundation (DFG);archeological and epigraphic field researchon the Northern Vaca Plateau Geo-archeological Project in Belize as well as incave archeology on Proyecto ArqueologicoPiedras Negras in Guatemala, andethnological field research on linguisticusage among the Maya of San Antonio,Cayo, Belize.

Dr. Nicholas DunningCincinnati, Ohio, University of Cincinnati,Department of Geography, Associate Pro-fessor; research emphasis: archeology ofsettlements, agriculture, archeology of thePuuc region.

Markus Eberl, M.A.Department of Anthropology, TulaneUniversity, New Orleans, candidate fordoctorate; research emphasis: archeology ofthe Lowlands, Maya script and eschatology.

Dr. Eva EggebrechtHildesheim, Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum, co-worker; research emphasis:Egypt, World cultures, history of discovery.

Arq. Federico Fahsen OrtegaGuatemala City, Universidad del Valle,architect and town planner; 1980–1984Ambassador in the United States, ViceForeign Minister of Guatemala and Directorof the Tourist Authority INGUAT. Since1984, actively participating in Maya researchwith emphasis on hieroglyphic script andarcheology of the Highlands.

Dr. Daniel Graña-BehrensBonn, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Institut für Altamerikanistikund Ethnologie, scientific collaborator with

a VW-Stiftung Tandem research project onscripts and ritual in Mesoamerica and China;research emphasis: Maya script, ritual andhistoriography in Mesoamerica.

Prof. Dr. Nikolai GrubeBonn, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Institut für Altamerikanistikund Ethnologie, university professor;research emphasis: archeology and history ofMaya civilisation, Maya hieroglyphic script,Mesoamerican ethnology, resource use in theAmerican tropics numerous book publi-cations and essays on the script, history, andarcheology of the Maya.

Marta GrubeBonn, co-worker on various archeologicalprojects in Belize.

Dr. Antje GunsenheimerHanover, Volkswagen-Stiftung, examiner.Research emphasis: Yukatek Mayaliterature, Maya society in the early colonialtimes, Maya history in general.

Dr. Norman HammondBoston University, Professor of Archeologyand Associate in Maya Archeology at thePeabody Museum, Harvard University;member of the British Academy and of theSociety of Antiquaries of London; collabor-ation on various archeological projects inBelize, including Lubaantun, Nim Li Punit,Nohmul, Colha and Cuello. Since 1992,leader of the investigations in La Milpa inthe north-west of Belize in cooperation withGair Tourtellot.

Dr. Richard HansenLos Angeles, University of California,Regional Archeological Investigation of theNorth Peten, Guatemala, Project Director;leader of excavations at Nakbe, El Mirador,and numerous other sites in northern Peten;research emphasis: Preclassic.

Dr. Peter HarrisonAlbuquerque, University of New Mexico,Anthropology Department, AdjunctAssociate Professor; Research Associate withthe Middle American Research Institute,Tulane University; participant and leader ofexcavation projects in Tikal, Quintana Roo

(Mexico), and north Belize. Researchemphasis: intensive agriculture of the Maya,architecture.

Prof. Dr. Annegrete HohmannGraz, Technische Universität, Institut furStädtebau, Professor of Urban Planning;research emphasis: urban planning andlayout among the Maya.

Simon MartinPhiladelphia, The University Museum,University of Pennsylvania, curator forMaya hieroglyphics, Epigrapher for theCalakmul archeological project, Campeche,Mexico; research emphasis: hieroglyphicscript, religion, and history of the ClassicMaya, numerous book publications andessays on the script, history, and archeologyof the Maya.

Dr. Marilyn MassonAlbany, State University of New York,Department of Anthropology, AssociateProfessor; Director of excavations of LagunaOn, Belize; research emphasis: archeology ofthe Postclassic period in the Lowlands,Zapotek inscriptions.

Dr. Mary Ellen MillerNew Haven, Yale University, Vincent Scully Professor of the History of Art;research emphasis: art history ofMesoamerica, iconography of theBonampak murals.

Christian Prager, M.A.Bonn, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Institut für Altamerikanistikund Ethnologie, candidate for doctorate;research emphasis: hieroglyphic text,inscriptions of the southern Maya Lowland,Belize, ethnohistory of the colonial period inthe Lowlands, religion of the Maya

Dr. Dorie Reents-BudetWilmington, The University of NorthCarolina, Director, Museum of WorldCultures and Adjunct Associate Professor,Department of Anthropology; researchemphasis: polychrome ceramics, icono-graphy, and neutron activation of ceramicsfrom the Classic period.

Frauke Sachse, M.A.Bonn, Rheinische Friedrich-WilhelmsUniversität, Institut für Altamerikanistikund Völkerkunde, candidate for doctorate;research emphasis: Mayan linguistics,ethnohistory, Xinca languages.

Temis Vayhinger-Scheer, M.A.Heilbronn; research emphasis: ethnohistoryof the scouthern Lowlands Itzaj Maya.

Dr. Karl TaubeRiverside, University of California, Depart-ment of Anthropology, Professor; researchemphasis: Mesoamerican iconography, andreligion.

Dr. Stefanie TeufelBonn, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Institut für Altamerikanistikund Ethnologie, lecturer, collaborator withvarious archeological projects in Guatemalaand Belize; research emphasis: iconographyand hieroglyphic script of the Maya,especially of Piedras Negras.

Michael Vallo, M.A.Bonn, Rheinische Friedrich-WilhelmsUniversität, Institut für Altamerikanistikund Völkerkunde, candidate for doctorate;co-worker on Bonn University’s archeo-logical project of Xkipche, Yucatan; researchemphasis: chronology of the Puuc region,ceramics.

Dr. Alexander W. VoßChetumal, Universidad de Quintana Roo,lecturer; research emphasis: hieroglyphicscript, dynastic history of the Maya,archeology and history of civilization ofYucatan.

Elisabeth Wagner, M.A.Bonn, Rheinische Friedrich-WilhelmsUniversität, Institut für Altamerikanistikund Völkerkunde, candidate for doctorate;training as gemstone cutter and polisher;research interests: hieroglyphic scripts,dynastic history, religious iconography.

467

AUTHORS

General descriptions of Maya culture

Allebrand, Raimund (Ed.), Die Erben derMaya. Indianischer Aufbruch in Guatemala,Horlemann, Unkel 1997Coe, Michael D., The Maya, Thames andHudson, 5th Edition. London and New York1998Eggebrecht, Arne, Nikolai Grube, and EvaEggebrecht (Ed.), Die Welt der Maya, Philippvon Zabern, Mainz 1992Hammond, Norman, Ancient MayaCivilization, Rutgers University Press, NewBrunswick 1982Miller, Mary E., Maya Art and Architecture,Thames and Hudson, London and New York1999Riese, Berthold, Die Maya. Geschichte, Kultur,Religion, C. H. Beck, München 1995 (= Beck’-sche Reihe Wissen, 2026)Sabloff, Jeremy A., Die Maya. Archäologieeiner Hochkultur, Spektrum der Wissen-schaft, Heidelberg 1991 (= Spektrum Biblio-thek, 29)Schmidt, Peter, Mercedes de la Garza andEnrique Nalda (Ed.). Los Mayas, Ausst.-Kat.Conaculta, RCS-Libri, Milan and Mexico City1998Sharer, Robert J., The Ancient Maya, StanfordUniversity Press, 5. Edition Stanford, CA 1994

Volcanoes and jungle – a richly varied habitat

Blake, Emmet R., Birds of Mexico, Universityof Chicago Press, Chicago 1953Holdridge, Lawrence R., Mapa ecológico deAmérica Central, Unidad de RecursosNaturales, Unión Panamericana, WashingtonD.C. 1969Huntington, E., The Peninsula of Yucatan. In:Bulletin of the American Geographical Society,44, 1912: 801–822Murie, A., Mammals from Guatemala andBritish Honduras. In: University of Michigan,Museum of Zoology, Miscellaneous Publica-tions, 26, 1935: 7–30Pennington, Thomas D. and J. Sarukhan,Arboles tropicales de Mexico, InstitutoNacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Mexico1968Roys, Ralph L., The Ethno-Botany of the Maya,Department of Middle American Research,Tulane University, New Orleans 1931 (=Middle American Research Institute Publi-cation, 2)Sapper, Karl, Sobre la geografía física y lageología de la península Yucatán, Instituto deGeología, 3, Mexico 1896Standley, Paul C., Flora of Yucatan, Field Mu-seum of Natural History, Chicago 1930 (= Bota-nical Series, III, 3)Stuart, L., Fauna of Middle America. In: Hand-book of Middle American Indians, 1, 1964:316–362Wagner, P. L., Natural Vegetation of Middle

America. In: Handbook of Middle AmericanIndians, 1, 1964: 216–264Ward, W.C., A.E. Weidie and W. Black,Geology and Hydrogeology of the Yucatan andQuaternary Geology of Northeastern YucatanPeninsula, New Orleans Geological Society,New Orleans 1985

Cacao – the beverage of the gods

Coe, Michael D., The True History ofChocolate, Thames and Hudson, London 1996Stuart, David, The Río Azul Cacao Pot. Epigra-phic Observations on the Function of a MayaCeramic Vessel. In: Antiquity, 62, 1988: 153–157

The origins of the Maya civilization – thebeginnings of village life

Adams, Richard E.W. (Ed.), The Origins ofMaya Civilization, University of New MexicoPress, Albuquerque 1977Andrews V, E. Wyllys and NormanHammond, Redefinition of the Swasey Phase atCuello, Belize. In: American Antiquity, 55 (3),1990: 570–584Gerhardt, Juliette Cartwright, Preclassic MayaArchitecture at Cuello, Belize, Oxford 1988 (=British Archaeological Research, InternationalSeries, 464)Hammond, Norman, The Earliest Maya. In:Scientific American, 236 (3), 1977: 116–133Hammond, Norman, Cuello. An Early MayaCommunity in Belize, Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge, MA 1991Hammond, Norman, Amanda Clarke and SaraDonaghey, The Long Goodbye. MiddlePreclassic Maya Archaeology at Cuello. Belize.In: Latin American Antiquity, 6, (2), 1995:120–128Jones, John G., Pollen Evidence for EarlySettlement and Agriculture in Northern Belize.In: Palynology, 18, 1994: 205–211Kelly, Thomas C., Preceramic Projectile PointTypology in Belize. In: Ancient Mesoamerica, 4(2), 1993: 205–227Kosakowsky, Laura, Preclassic Maya Pottery atCuello, Belize, University of Arizona Press,Tucson 1987 (= Anthropological Papers of theUniversity of Arizona, 47)Kosakowsky, Laura and Duncan C. Pring, TheCeramics of Cuello, Belize. A New Evaluation.In: Ancient Mesoamerica, 9(1), 1998: 55–66

Obsidian – the metal of the Maya

Clark, John E., Prismatic Blademaking, Craft-manship, and Production. An Analysis ofObsidian Refuse from Ojo de Agua, Chiapas,Mexico. In: Ancient Mesoamerica, 8 (1), 1997:137–159Hammond, Norman, Obsidian Trade Routes inthe Mayan Area. In: Science, 178, 1972:1092–1093

The first cities – the beginnings of urbanizationand state formation in the Maya Lowlands

Ball, Joseph W. and E. Wyllys Andrews V,Preclassic Architecture at Becan, Campeche,Mexico, Tulane University, New Orleans 1978(= Middle American Research Institute,Occasional Paper, 3) Dahlin, Bruce H., A Colossus in Guatemala –The Preclassic Maya City of El Mirador. In: Ar-chaeology, 37 (5), 1984: 18–25Forsyth, Donald W., The Ceramics of El Mira-dor, Peten, Guatemala, Provo, Utah 1989 (=Papers of the New World ArchaeologicalFoundation, 63)Forsyth, Donald W., The Ceramic Sequence atNakbe. In: Ancient Mesoamerica, 4 (1), 1993:31–53Freidel, David, Polychrome Façades of theLowland Maya Preclassic. In: Painted Archi-tecture and Polychrome Monumental Sculpturein Mesoamerica, edited by Elizabeth Boone,Dumbarton Oaks, Washington D.C., 1985:5–30Grube, Nikolai (Ed.), The Emergence ofLowland Maya Civilization. The Transitionfrom the Preclassic to the Early Classic, Verlagvon Fleming, Möckmühl 1996 (= ActaMesoamericana, 8)Hansen, Richard D., Excavations in the TigreComplex, El Mirador, Peten, Guatemala,Provo, UH 1990 (= Papers of the New WorldArchaeological Foundation, 62)Hansen, Richard D., An Early Maya Text from El Mirador, Guatemala, Center for Maya Research, Washington D.C. 1991 (=Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing,37)Hansen, Richard D., Continuity and Dis-junction. The Preclassic Antecedents of ClassicMaya Architecture. In: Function and Meaningin Maya Architecture, edited by Stephen D.Houston, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington D.C.1988: 49–122Hansen, Richard D., Ronald L. Bishop andFederico Fahsen, Notes on Codex-StyleCeramics from Nakbe, Peten, Guatemala. In: Ancient Mesoamerica, 2(1), 1999: 225–243Laporte, Juan Pedro and Juan Antonio Valdés,Tikal y Uaxactun en el Preclásico, Instituto deInvestigaciones Antropológicas, UniversidadNacional Autónoma de Mexico, Mexico City1993Matheny, Ray T., Investigations at El Mirador,Peten, Guatemala. In: National Geographic Re-search, 2, 1986: 322–353McAnany, Patricia, Living with the Ancestors.Kinship and Kingship in Ancient Maya Society,University of Texas Press, Austin 1995Pendergast, David, Lamanai, Belize. Summaryof Excavation Results, 1974–1980. In: Journal ofField Archaeology, 8 (1), 1981: 29–53Ricketson, Oliver G. and Edith B Ricketson,Uaxactun, Guatemala, Group E, 1926–1931,Washington D.C. 1937 (= Carnegie Institutionof Washington Publications, 477)

Jade – the green gold of the Maya

Digby, Adrian, Maya Jades, British Museum,London 1972Lange, Frederick W., Precolumbian Jade. NewGeological and Cultural Interpretations, Uni-versity of Utah Press, Salt Lake City 1993Proskouriakoff, Tatiana, Jades from the Cenoteof Sacrifice, Chichen Itza, Yucatan, HarvardUniversity, Cambridge, MA 1974 (= Papers ofthe Peabody Museum of Archaeology andEthnology)

Maya agriculture

Adams Richard E.W., W.E. Brown and T.Patrick Culbert, Radar Mapping, Archaeology,and Ancient Maya Land Use. In: Science, 213,1981Fedick, Scott L. (Ed.), The Managed Mosaic.Ancient Maya Wetland Harrison, Peter, D., The Rise of the Bajos andthe Fall of the Maya. In: Social Process in MayaPrehistory, edited by Norman Hammond,London 1977: 469–508Harrison, Peter, D., The Revolution in AncientMaya Subsistence. In: Vision and Revision inMaya Studies, edited by Flora Clancy and PeterD. Harrison, University of New Mexico Press,Albuquerque 1990: 99–113Harrison, Peter, D. and B.L. Turner, Pre-Hispanic Maya Agriculture, University of NewMexico Press, Albuquerque 1978Harrison, Peter D. and Robert E. Fry,Pulltrouser Swamp. A Lowland Maya Com-munity Cluster in Northern Belize. TheSettlement Maps, The University of Utah Press,Salt Lake City 2000Killion, Thomas W. (Ed.), Gardens ofPrehistory. The Archaeology of SettlementAgriculture in Greater Mesoamerica, Univer-sity of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa 1992Pohl, (Ed.), Ancient Maya Wetland Agri-culture. Excavations on Albion Island,Northern Belize, Boulder 1990 (= WestviewSpecial Studies in Archaeological Research)Puleston, Dennis E., An ExperimentalApproach to the Function of Classic MayaChultuns. In: American Anthropologist, 36,1971: 322–335Turner, B.L. and Peter D. Harrison, PulltrouserSwamp. Ancient Maya Habitat, Agricultureand Settlement in Belize, University of TexasPress, Austin 1983

Tortillas and Tamales – the food of the maizepeople and their gods

Pilcher, Jeffrey M., Que vivan los tamales!Mexican Cuisine and National Identity,University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque1998Taube, Karl A., The Maize Tamale in ClassicMaya Diet, Epigraphy and Art. In: AmericanAntiquity, 54, 1989: 31–51

468

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AAbaj Takalik 90, 93, 442Acanceh 442

stucco mask 60 Achiote 428Acosta, José 128Acropolis 52, 428Adelantado 375Adobe 248, 428Agave 428Agriculture 62, 71Aguada 428Aguateca 184, 412, 442

Stela 2 413Aguilar, Gerónimo de 374Agurcia, Ricardo 205Ahpo Sotz’il 366Ajaw 149, 428Aj Maxam 259Akan 294, 428Ake 442Ak’inob (→ calendar priest)Alcohol 294Allspice type 35Almendáriz, Ricardo 408Altar 428Altar de Sacrificios 40, 45 f., 51, 57, 118, 254, 442Altun Ha 442Alvarado, Pedro de 302, 374, 375, 377, 379, 380Amapola tree 74Amatitlan 87Amatle phase 95Ancestors 270Andrews, E. Wyllys 63Antigua 384Apron molding 57, 428Apse house 37, 428Ara 30 Architecture 195 ff.Arenal phase 92Arroyo de Piedra 412Ascension to the throne 151 f.Astronomy 131 ff.Asuncion Mita 360Atetelco

Mural 111Atitlan 378Atlatl 101, 104, 110, 180, 360, 437Atole 83, 428Aurora phase 94Avendaño y Loyola, Andrés de 115, 382 f.Avila, Alonso de 376, 377Avocado 44Awilix 270, 362Aztecs 99 f., 180, 182, 375, 428

BBack-belt loom 354Baja Verapaz 359, 360Bajo 58, 77, 428Bakab 136, 287, 428, 432Bak’tun 428Balaj Chan K’awiil 165, 166f.Balam 428B’alam Aq’ab’ 362B’alam Kitze’ 362

Balamku 198, 442Balankanche 304Balberta 88Balche’ 82, 294, 324, 428Ball game 155, 179, 186 ff., 190, 195, 315 f., 428Bark paper 128Barra phase 88Bat Palace 222, 300Batab’ 428Beans 71, 73 Becan 63, 184, 442

Structure I 209Structure IV 208 f.

Bejucal 107Belize 21, 32, 348, 417Berlin, Heinrich 118, 119Bernasconi, Antonio 408Bird Jaguar 153Birth of gods 267Blackman Eddie 51Bladen phase 36, 38, 40 ff., 44Blowgun 429Blood sacrifice 152 f., 155 f., 179f., 265, 268, 273,

276, 314, 429, 437Boa constrictor 30Bolonchen 297, 324, 328Bonampak 181, 235 ff., 442

Acropolis 236 f.Stela 3 105Murals 235 ff.

Böttiger, Carl August 399Bourbourg, Abbé Charles Etienne Brasseur de

402Bundle of relics 135Burial 38, 69, 202, 226, 250, 298, 308, 311, 315Burial mask 66Burnt offering 272Bread nut tree 27, 74, 429Bry, Theodorus de 379, 386, 465Buenavista 346Buenavista del Cayo 251

CCabildo 385, 387Cacao 22, 32 f., 109, 239, 249, 251, 387, 433Cacaxtla 272Cahal Pech 51 f., 442Cahyup’ 359Calabash 429Calakmul 14, 16, 51, 60, 63, 149 f., 157, 159,

162 ff., 165 f., 168, 171 ff., 198, 443Calendar 116, 118, 131, 134, 138, 142 f., 292Calendar priest 131, 141 ff.Calendar Round 136, 429Campeche 21, 24, 377, 417Cancuen 443Cannibalism 179f.Capital 429Caracol 162 ff., 169, 173, 199, 232, 266, 341, 443

Caracol Building 132Caana Pyramid 163

Cashew tree 44, 45Castañeda, José Luciano 410Caste War 16, 418 ff., 429Catherwood, Frederick 13, 121, 202, 213, 292,

297, 323, 364, 401, 405, 406 f., 410, 411

Causeway 51, 210, 232 f.Cave 178, 191, 297 ff., 300 ff., 303 f., 305, 306, 307Cedar 27, 429Ceiba 27, 429Cenote 279, 324, 429 Central America 429Ceramic 42f., 62, 64, 88, 103, 109, 126, 127 f.,146f.,

247 f., 251 f., 255, 279Cereal 387Ceremonial road (→ causeway)Cerros 51, 63 f., 69, 443

Stucco mask 61Chaak 66, 82, 129, 233, 266, 286, 289, 305, 306,

326, 369, 429, 437Ch’ahom 429 Chak Mo’ol 429Chak Tok Ich’aak I 159Chalcatzingo

Rock relief 300 Chalchuapa 51, 87Chan Chaak K’ak’nal Ajaw 336Chenes 200, 326, 429Chert 43Chetumal 377Chiapa de Corzo 60, 63Chiapanek 381Chiapas 26, 186, 381, 400, 417Chicanna

Building II 200Chichen Itza 16, 68, 96, 133, 187, 190, 273, 305,

342, 344, 345 f., 353, 400, 432, 443Ball game court 189 ff.Castillo 194, 215, 343, 407Cenote 25, 376Iglesia 345K’uk’ulcan Pyramid 320 f., 443Monjas Building 212, 400Nunnery 185Temple of the Warriors 213 f., 432

Chichicastenango 75, 423Chicle 28Chiefdom 87 f.Chilam Balam 429Chilam Balam book 11, 131, 134 f., 141, 144, 342,

388, 391Chili 71Chimaltenango

Mixco Viejo 360, 366, 368Chinamit 366 f.Chinampas 76Chinkultic 443Chochola 337

Chochola ceramics 429Ch’ok 150Ch’ol 429Ch’olan 90, 92, 122, 126, 381, 429

Culture 92f.Chontal 429Ch’orti’ 429Christianization 387, 390 ff.Chuchqajaw 423Chujuyub’ 360Chultun 324, 429Chuwitinamit 359Cinnabar 429Cistern (→ Chultun)Ciudadela 101

Civil war 421 ff.Clovis Type 35Climate 21, 22Coa 429Coba 232, 443

Stela I 283Cobweb Swamp 35Cocos Chicanel phase 42Codex 430Codex Dresden 116, 122, 129, 136, 141,

144 f., 145, 178, 286, 399, 430Codex Grolier 129, 431Codex Madrid 129, 434Codex Paris 129, 140, 141, 145, 435Codex Style 64, 430Codex Troano 402Codex Tro Cortesiano 129Codex Vienna 116Codz-Poop building 327Coffee 26, 418, 430Cofradía 430Cogolludo, Fray Diego López de 233Common year (→ Haab)Colha 41, 46, 51 f., 63Colonial period 385 ff.Colonization 373 ff.Colossal head 88 f.Columbus, Christopher 374Comal 430Comalcalco 443Comité de Unidad Campesina (CUC) 422Conquistador 373Copador ceramics 429Copal 272, 430Copal resin 57Copan 51, 94, 109 ff., 120, 169 f., 190 f., 205, 290,

400 f., 405, 444Altar L 170Ball game court 189, 191, 206Hieroglyphic Stairway 111, 165, 432Stela A 121Stela B 292Stela F 434Stela H 292Stela 19 291Structure 4 205Structure 8N-66 276Structure 10L-9 206Structure 10L-10 190 Structure 10L-11 267, 428Structure 10L-22 264, 291, 428Structure 10L-24 429Structure 10L-26-sub 338Structure 10L-29 270 f.Temple 22 291Temple 26 195, 206

Coral snake 30Corbel vault 325, 430Córdoba, Francisco Hernández 374Corozo Palm 27Cortés, Hernán 374, 375, 378 f., 381, 390, 397Correlation 430Cosmic plate 287, 289, 450Cosmography 281, 286, 289, 291 f.Costa Rica 22Cotton 22, 71Court dwarf 278 f.

474

INDEX

The publisher would like to thank the museums, collectors, archives, and photographers for their permissionto reproduce their copyright and for their friendly support during the realization of this book. Up to the time of publication, the editor and publisher have made intensive efforts to locate all other owners of picture rights. Any persons or organizations who have not been approached, and who claim rights to illustrations used,should contact the publisher.

m = middle a = above b = below l = left r = right

2: Michel Zabé/AZA, Mexico City; 4/5/6/7: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 8/9: Jorge Peréz de Lara, MexicoCity; 10: Studio für Landkartentechnik, Norderstedt; 11: The British Museum, Museum of Mankind, London;12: J. Pérez de Lara, Mexico City; 13 a: Michel Zabé/aza, Mexico City; 13 b: Archiv Eggebrecht, Hildesheim;14/15: Michel Zabé/aza, Mexico City; 16: Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin; 17 a: Stephan Wagner,Munich; 17 b: Archiv Grube, Bonn; 18/19/20: H+Z Bildagentur GmbH, Hannover/B. & H. Röder; 21: John B.Garver Jr./Rolli Arts, Essen; 22 a: Herbert Wilhelmy/Peter Frese, Munich; 22 b: John B. Garver Jr./Rolli Arts,Essen; 23: Archiv Grube, Bonn; 24: John J. Bangma/Okapia, Frankfurt a. M.; 25 a/b: Henri Stierlin, Geneva;26 l: Archiv Eggebrecht, Hildesheim; 26 r: Archiv Grube, Bonn; 27: Getty Images/Tony Stone Images,Munich/James Strachan; 28 a: Andreas M. Gross; 28 b: E. Thiem/Lotosfilm, Kaufbeuren; 29: Justin Kerr, NewYork (NY); 30 a/bl: Andreas M. Gross; 30 ml: Andreas M. Gross/jd Bildagentur, Munich; 31 al: GettyImages/Tony Stone Images, Munich/Art Wolfe; 31 am: Jack Swenson/Wildlife/Okapia, Frankfurt a. M.; 31 ar:M. P. L. Fogden/OSF/Okapia, Frankfurt a. M.; 31 b: Okapia, Frankfurt a. M./Lynn Stone; 32 a: Tandem VerlagGmbH, Königswinter/Günter Beer; 32 bl: Stockfood, Munich/Bernd Euler; 32 br: Archiv für Kunst undGeschichte, Berlin; 33 a: Nikolai Grube, Bonn/Peter Frese, Munich; 33 m: Andreas M. Gross; 33 b: NationalGeographic Society, Image Collection, Washington D.C./George Mobley; 34: E. Thiem/Lotosfilm,Kaufbeuren; 35: Thomas C. Kelly/Rolli Arts, Essen; 36 a: Harry D. Pohl/Rolli Arts, Essen; 36 b: NormanHammond, Boston (MA); 37: Norman Hammond, Boston (MA); 38: Norman Hammond/Rolli Arts, Essen;39/40 a: Norman Hammond, Boston (MA); 40 b: J. Lubinski, Medical College of Ohio; 41: Martha Cooper; 42:(1, 3–6): Norman Hammond, Boston (MA); (2): Stuart Rome; (7): Richard D. Hansen, Los Angeles (CA); (8): E.Thiem/Lotosfilm, Kaufbeuren; 43: E. Thiem/Lotosfilm, Kaufbeuren; 44 a: G. Büttner/Naturbild/Okapia,Frankfurt a. M.; 44 b: Charles H. Miksicek/Rolli Arts, Essen; 45 l: G. Büttner/Naturbild/Okapia, Frankfurta. M.; 45 r: The Garden Picture Library, London; 46: E. W. Andrews, Boston (MA); 47 a: Juan P. Laporte/RolliArts, Essen; 47 b: Elisabeth Wagner, Bonn; 48 al: Michel Zabé/aza, Mexico City; 48 ar: John E. Clark/RolliArts, Essen; 48 b: Norman Hammond/Peter Frese, Munich; 49 a/bl: Michel Zabé/aza, Mexico City; 49 br:Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 50: National Geographic Society, Washington D.C./Stephen Northup; 51:Richard D. Hansen/Peter Frese, Munich; 52: Richard D. Hansen, Abel Morales, Lopez Wayn K./Rolli Arts,Essen; 53 al: F. R. Hillman; 53 ar: C. D. Bieber; 53 b/54 al: Richard D. Hansen, Los Angeles (CA); 54 ar:Andreas M. Gross, Munich; 54 bl: Richard D. Hansen, Los Angeles (CA); 54 br: F. R. Hillman; 55: Juan LuisVelasquez/Rolli Arts, Essen; 56 a: C. D. Bieber; 56 bl: Ortego/Richard D. Hansen/Rolli Arts, Essen; 56 br: F. R.Hillman; 57: Richard D. Hansen, Los Angeles (CA); 58 a: Richard D. Hansen/Rolli Arts, Essen; 58 b: NationalGeographic Society, Washington D.C.; 59: David Pendergast/Rolli Arts, Essen; 60: J. Pérez de Lara, MexicoCity; 61 a: Terry Rutledge/Rolli Arts, Essen; 61 b: Linda Schele, David Freidel/Peter Frese, Munich; 62/63 a:Richard D. Hansen, Los Angeles (CA); 63 b: F. R. Hillman; 64 b./65: Richard D. Hansen, Los Angeles (CA); 66a: Michel Zabé/aza, Mexico City; 66 b: Henri Stierlin, Geneva; 67 a: Henri Stierlin, Geneva; 67 bl: MichelZabé/aza, Mexico City; 67 br: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 68 a: Adrian Digby/Rolli Arts Essen; 68 m: ©Tandem Verlag GmbH, Königswinter/Elisabeth Wagner/Rolli Arts, Essen; 68 bm/r: Justin Kerr, New York(NY); 68 bl: E. Thiem/Lotosfilm, Kaufbeuren; 68 ml: E. Thiem/Lotosfilm, Kaufbeuren, 69 a: University ofPennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia; 69 bm: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 69 bl: Henri Stierlin, Geneva; 69 br:The Art Archive, London; 70: J. Pérez de Lara, Mexico City; 71: Andrew Harrison/Rolli Arts, Essen; 72 al:Getty Images/Tony Stone Images, Munich/David Hiser; 72 ar: Getty Images/Tony Stone Images,Munich/Jacques Jangoux; 72 br: Doro Schütze/Version, Cologne; 72 bl: Herby Sachs/Version, Cologne; 73:Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Graz; 74 al: Peter D. Harrison, New Mexico; 74 ar: Marco Gross,Peten; 75 a: Peter D. Harrison, New Mexico; 75 b: Getty Images/Tony Stone Images, Munich/PaulEdmondson; 76 a: Peter D. Harrison, New Mexico; 76 b: Herbert Wilhelmy/Peter Frese, Munich; 77 l: PeterD. Harrison/Peter Frese, Munich; 77 r: B. L. Turner II.; 78/79 a: Robert Francis, South American Pictures; 79b: Norman Hammond/Rolli Arts, Essen; 80/81 a: 2000 Macduff Everton, Santa Barbara (CA); 81 b: JustinKerr, New York (NY); 82/83: Andreas M. Gross; 84/85: 2000 Macduff Everton, Santa Barbara (CA); 86: E.Thiem/Lotosfilm, Kaufbeuren; 87: Federico Fahsen/Rolli Arts, Essen; 88 a: Henri Stierlin, Geneva; 88 b: GettyImages/Tony Stone Images, Munich/Suzanne Murphy; 89: Archiv Eggebrecht, Hildesheim; 90 a: ElisabethWagner, Bonn; 90 b: © Tandem Verlag GmbH, Königswinter; 91 al: Robert J. Sharer; 91 ar: ArchivEggebrecht, Hildesheim; 91 b: Federico Fahsen, Guatemala; 92 a: E. Thiem/Lotosfilm, Kaufbeuren; 92 b:Henri Stierlin, Geneva; 93: Henri Stierlin, Geneva; 94: Federico Fahsen/Peter Frese, Munich; 95: CollectionGaston Burmand, Geneva/Gérald Berjonneau, Paris; 96 a: Andreas M. Gross; 96 bl: E. Thiem/Lotosfilm,Kaufbeuren; 96 br: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 97: Henri Stierlin, Geneva; 98: TCL/Getty Images/BavariaBildagentur, Düsseldorf; 99: Roger-Violett, Paris; 100 (1–4): Andreas M. Gross ;(5): TCL/Getty Images/BavariaBildagentur, Düsseldorf; 100 m: W. Haberland/Rolli Arts, Essen; 101: R. Kiedrowski, Ratingen; 102: Fine ArtsMuseum of San Francisco/Gift of Jack Tanzer, 1986.74, San Francisco (CA); 103 a: Fine Arts Museum of SanFrancisco/Bequest of Harald J. Wagner, 1985.104.9, San Francisco (CA); 103 b: Michel Zabé/aza, Mexico City;104: © Tandem Verlag GmbH, Königswinter/Simon Martin/Peter Frese, Munich; 105: © Tandem VerlagGmbH, Königswinter/Simon Martin/Peter Frese, Munich; 106: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 107 a: ©Tandem Verlag GmbH, Königswinter/Nikolai Grube, Bonn/Peter Frese, Munich; 107 b: University ofPennsylvania/Rolli Arts, Essen; 108 l: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 108 ar: © Tandem Verlag GmbH,Königswinter/Simon Martin/Peter Frese, Munich; 108 mr: © Tandem Verlag GmbH, Königswinter/NikolaiGrube, Bonn/Rolli Arts, Essen; 109 a: The Art Archive, London/Francesco Venturi; 109 b: Hans Zaglitsch,Muiden; 110: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 111: Rafael Doniz, Mexico City; 112/113: J. Pérez de Lara, Mexico

City; 114: The Art Archive, London/Francesco Venturi; 115: Bibliotheca del Palacio Real, PatrimonioNacional, Madrid; 116: Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz/Iberoamerikanisches Institut, Berlin; 117: Museumder Kulturen, Basel – Photo: Peter Horner 1997; 118 bl: Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich – Photographicdept.; 118 am: President & Fellows of Harvard College, Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge(MA); 118 ar: Courtesy Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge (MA). Photograph by CarnegieInstitution of Washington; 119 l: Hasso Hohmann, Graz; 119 r: President & Fellows of Harvard College,Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge (MA); 119 bm/120: Nikolai Grube, Bonn/Peter Frese,Munich; 121: Edizioni White Star, Vercelli; 122 a: Nikolai Grube, Bonn/Peter Frese, Munich; 122 b: H.Zaglitsch, Muiden; 123: Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich – Photographic dept.; 124 a/br: © Tandem VerlagGmbH, Königswinter/Nikolai Grube, Bonn/Rolli Arts, Essen; 124 bl: © Tandem Verlag GmbH,Königswinter/Nikolai Grube, Bonn/Peter Frese, Munich; 125: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 126 a: Michael D.Coe/Rolli Arts, Essen; 126 b: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 127 a: Archiv Grube, Bonn; 127 b/128 a: Justin Kerr,New York (NY); 128 bl: Nikolai Grube, Bonn/Peter Frese, Munich; 128 br: Andreas M. Gross; 129 a: The ArtArchive, London/American Museum, Madrid/Album, Joseph Martin; 129 b/130: Justin Kerr, New York (NY);131: © Tandem Verlag GmbH, Königswinter/Alexander Voß/Rolli Arts, Essen; 132 a: J. Pérez de Lara,Mexico City; 132 bl: Henri Stierlin, Geneva/Rolli Arts, Essen; 132 br: Anthony Aveni/Peter Frese, Munich; 133a: Andreas M. Gross/jd Bildagentur, Munich; 133 bl: Anthony Aveni/Rolli Arts, Essen; 133 br: © TandemVerlag GmbH, Königswinter/Alexander Voß/Peter Frese, Munich; 134: © Tandem Verlag GmbH,Königswinter/Alexander Voß/Rolli Arts, Essen; 135: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 136: Linda Schele/PeterFrese, Munich; 137: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Graz; 138: © Tandem Verlag GmbH,Königswinter/Alexander Voß/Rolli Arts, Essen; 139 a: Archiv Grube, Bonn; 139 b: © Tandem Verlag GmbH,Königswinter/Alexander Voß/Peter Frese, Munich; 140/141: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Graz;142: © Tandem Verlag GmbH, Königswinter/Nikolai Grube/Rolli Arts, Essen; 143: Justin Kerr, New York(NY); 144 a: TCL/Getty Images/Bavaria Bildagentur, Düsseldorf; 144 b: University Museum of Philadelphia;145 a/br: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Graz; 145 bl: © Tandem Verlag GmbH, Königswinter;146/147: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 148: The Art Archive, London/Archaeological Museum Copan Hon-duras/Dagli Orti, Paris; 150: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 151: Nikolai Grube, Bonn/Peter Frese, Munich; 152a: Alvaro Toepke Cáceres; 152 b: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 153 l: Dallas Museum of Art, Gift of The Otisand Valma Davis Dozier Fund, Dallas (TX); 153 r: President & Fellows of Harvard College, PeabodyMuseum, Harvard University, Cambridge (MA); 154: The British Museum, London; 155 a: President &Fellows of Harvard College, Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge (MA)/Hillel Burger; 155 b:Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 156: The British Museum, London; 157 a: Andreas M. Gross, Munich; 157 b/158a: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 158 b/159: Linda Schele/Rolli Arts, Essen; 160: University of PennsylvaniaMuseum, Philadelphia (PA); 161: British Museum, London; 162: Simon Martin/Peter Frese, Munich; 163 a:University of Central Florida, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Orlando (FL)/Arlen & Diane Chase;163 b: Henri Stierlin, Geneva; 164 a: Enrico Ferrorelli/Focus, Hamburg; 164 b: Simon Martin/Peter Frese,Munich; 165: Stephen Houston/Peter Frese, Munich; 166: Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge(MA) /Hillel Burger; 167 l: Ian Graham, Courtesy of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge(MA); 167 r: University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia (PA); 168: Museum der Kulturen, Basel -Photo: Peter Horner, 1997; 169: Nikolai Grube, Bonn/Peter Frese, Munich; 170 l: Andreas M. Gross, Munich;170 r: Courtesy of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge (MA)/Teobert Maler; 171: IanGraham, Cambridge (MA); 172 a: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 172 b: © Tandem Verlag GmbH,Königswinter/Nikolai Grube; 173: © Galerie Mermoz, Paris/Roger Asselberghs; 174: Justin Kerr, New York(NY); 175: Andreas M. Gross, Munich; 176 l: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 176 r: Nikolai Grube, Bonn/RolliArts, Essen; 177: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 178 a: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Graz; 178 b:© Tandem Verlag GmbH, Königswinter/Nikolai Grube, Bonn/Peter Frese, Munich; 179 a: Rafael Doniz,Mexico City; 179 b: Linda Schele & David Freidel/Rolli Arts, Essen; 180: Linda Schele/Rolli Arts, Essen; 181a: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 181 b: National Geographic Society, Washington D.C.; 182/183: Museum derKulturen, Basel – Photo: Peter Horner 1997; 184: Justin Kerr, New York (NY); 185 a: City of Bristol Museumand Art Gallery, Bristol; 185 b: David Webster/Peter Frese, Munich; 186 a: The Art Archive,London/Archaeological Museum Copan Honduras/Dagli Orti, Paris; 186 b: Justin Kerr, New York (NY);187 a: AKG, Berlin; 187 b: AKG, Berlin/Erich Lessing; 188 a/b: Ian Graham, Courtesy of the PeabodyMuseum, Harvard University, Cambridge (MA); 188 m: © Tandem Verlag GmbH, Königswinter/NikolaiGrube, Bonn/Peter Frese, Munich; 189 m: Tatiana Proskouriakoff; 189 b: Linda Schele/Peter Matthews/PeterFrese, Munich; 190 al: H. Zaglitsch, Muiden; 190 ar: Henri & Anne Stierlin, Geneva; 190 b: KonradWothe/Look, Munich; 191 a: Archiv Grube, Bonn; 191 b: Andreas M. Gross, Munich; 192/193: 2000 MacduffEverton, Santa Barbara (CA); 194: FPG/Getty Images/Bavaria Bildagentur, Düsseldorf; 195: William R. CoeII/Peter Frese, Munich; 196 a: Elisabeth Wagner, Bonn; 196 b: Annegret Hohmann-Vogrin, Graz; 197 a:Andreas M. Gross, Munich; 197 b: Frank Ducote/Nicholas Hellmuth/Peter Frese, Munich; 198 r: Archiv Grube,Bonn; 198 l: Andreas M. Gross, Munich; 199 a: Elisabeth Wagner, Bonn; 199 b: Hasso Hohmann, Graz/PeterFrese, Munich; 200: H. Zaglitsch, Muiden; 201 a: J. Pérez de Lara, Mexico City; 201 b: University ofPennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia (PA); 202 a: AKG, Berlin; 202 b: The Art Archive, London/Album/J.Enrique Molina; 203 al: Ignacio Marquina/Peter Frese, Munich; 203 ar: Herby Sachs/Version, Cologne; 203 b:Merle Greene Robertson/Peter Frese, Munich; 204 al: Picture Finders/Getty Images/Bavaria Bildagentur,Düsseldorf; 204 ar: Herby Sachs/Version, Cologne; 204 bl: Merle Greene Robertson/Rolli Arts, Essen; 204 br:Ignacio Marquina/Rolli Arts, Essen; 205: Konrad Wothke/Look; 206 a: Hasso Hohmann/Rolli Arts, Essen;206 bl: Andreas M. Gross, Munich; 206 br: R. Kiedrowski, Ratingen; 207: Andreas M. Gross, Munich; 208a: Hasso Hohmann, Graz/Peter Frese, Munich; 208 b: Henri & Anne Stierlin; 209 a: Archiv Eggebrecht,Hildesheim; 210 a: The Art Archive, London/Mirelle Vautier; 210 b: AKG, Berlin; 211: Archiv Eggebrecht,Hildesheim; 212: AKG, Berlin; 213 a: Edizioni White Star, Vercelli; 213 b: The Art Archive, London/MireilleVautier; 214: FPG/Getty Images/Bavaria Bildagentur, Düsseldorf; 215 a: Images/Getty Images/BavariaBildagentur, Düsseldorf; 215 b: Ignacio Marquina/Peter Frese, Munich; 216 a: Michael Vallo, Bonn; 216 b:Michael Vallo/Carsten Deichmann/Hanns J. Prem, Bonn/Rolli Arts, Essen; 217: Michael Vallo/CarstenDeichmann/Hanns J. Prem, Bonn; 218: Getty Images/Tony Stone Images, Munich/Simeone Huber; 219:William R. Coe, Philadelphia (PA)/Peter Frese, Munich; 220 m: Peter D. Harrison, New Mexico/Peter Frese,Munich; 220 al: J. Pérez de Lara, Mexico City; 220 ar: Herbert Hartmann/Getty Images/Bavaria Bildagentur,Düsseldorf; 220 am: Nicholas Hellmuth, St. Louis (MO); 220 bm: Andreas M. Gross, Munich; 220 bl: Peter D.Harrison, New Mexico; 220 br: Archiv Grube, Bonn; 221: Roger-Viollet, Paris; 222: Nicholas Hellmuth, St.Louis (MO); 223 a: Peter D. Harrison, New Mexico/Peter Frese, Munich; 223 b: Peter D. Harrison, NewMexico; 224 al: Elisabeth Wagner, Bonn; 224 ar: J. Pérez de Lara, Mexico City; 224 b: Teobert Maler,Iberoamerikanisches Institut, Berlin; 225 a: Terry Rutledge from a drawing by Peter Spier/Peter Frese,Munich; 225 b: Archiv Grube, Bonn; 226: Andreas M. Gross, Munich; 227 a: Teobert Maler/

478

PICTUREACKNOWLEDGMENTS