Einführung Computerlinguistik Pragmatikhs/teach/13w/intro/pdf/11pragm.pdfPragmatics Grice Speech acts Semantics: Propositional content The propositional content of a sentence is its

Pragmatics Grice Speech acts

Einführung Computerlinguistik

Pragmatik

Hinrich Schütze & Robert Zangenfeind

Centrum für Informations- und Sprachverarbeitung, LMU München

2013-12-09

Schütze & Zangenfeind: Pragmatik 1 / 34


Take-away



Take-away

Pragmatics: Introduction



Take-away


Grice: conversation as cooperation



Take-away



Speech acts, performative verbs – language is not just aboutmaking factual statements about the world



Overview

1 Pragmatics

2 Grice

3 Speech acts



Outline

1 Pragmatics

2 Grice

3 Speech acts



Teilgebiete der Linguistik

Phonetik und Phonologie

Morphologie

Syntax

Semantik

Pragmatik



Pragmatics



Pragmatics

Study of how people do things with language



Pragmatics


Study of how a speaker chooses language in social interactionand how this affects others



Pragmatics



Pragmatics: “What was your intention when you said X? Whydid you say it?” Semantics: “What is the literal meaning ofX?”



Pragmatics



Pragmatics: “What was your intention when you said X? Whydid you say it?” Semantics: “What is the literal meaning ofX?”

From Greek “pragma” ‘deed, action’



Pragmatics: More general definition




Pragmatics = study of meaning in context





Linguistic context





Linguistic context

Situational context





Linguistic context

Situational context

Social context





Linguistic context

Situational context

Social context

Pragmatics: “the study of a linguistic expression X in aparticular context” Semantics: “the meaning of X inabstraction from particular situations, speakers or hearers”





Linguistic context

Situational context

Social context

Pragmatics: “the study of a linguistic expression X in aparticular context” Semantics: “the meaning of X inabstraction from particular situations, speakers or hearers”

Context is often action-related (“pragma-related”), but notalways



Deixis



Deixis

Klassische Bedeutungskomponente, die nur im Kontext derAeußerung untersucht / beschrieben werden kann



Deixis


Definition: Deixis = Zeige- und Hinweisfunktion sprachlicherAusdrücke in einem gegebenen Kontext



Deixis



deiktische/indexikalische Ausdrücke, die Bedeutung/Referenzerst im Rahmen der konkreten Situation erhalten:



Deixis




ich, du, er, . . . ,



Deixis




ich, du, er, . . . ,mein, dein, sein, . . . ,



Deixis




ich, du, er, . . . ,mein, dein, sein, . . . ,hier, dort, da drüben, . . . ,



Deixis




ich, du, er, . . . ,mein, dein, sein, . . . ,hier, dort, da drüben, . . . ,jetzt, heute, morgen, nächstes Jahr, . . .



Deixis




ich, du, er, . . . ,mein, dein, sein, . . . ,hier, dort, da drüben, . . . ,jetzt, heute, morgen, nächstes Jahr, . . .

Diese Ausdruecke erfordern zur Bedeutungsbestimmung dieräumliche und zeitliche Bestimmung von Sprecher,Angesprochenem und beschriebenen Situationen(Gegenstände, Ereignisse etc.)



Pragmatik in der Semiotik

Sprachliches Zeichen gekennzeichnet durch drei Dimensionen(Charles William Morris):

Semantik (Bezug zur Bedeutung)Syntaktik/Syntax (Bezug zu anderen sprachlichen Zeichen)Pragmatik (Bezug zu Zeichenbenutzern)



Semantics: Propositional content




The propositional content of a sentence is itscontext-independent meaning.





E.g., the following sentences all have the same propositionalcontent:






Du räumst dein Zimmer auf. (Aussagesatz)






Du räumst dein Zimmer auf. (Aussagesatz)Räumst du dein Zimmer auf? (Fragesatz)






Du räumst dein Zimmer auf. (Aussagesatz)Räumst du dein Zimmer auf? (Fragesatz)Räum dein Zimmer auf! (Aufforderungssatz)







In contrast to semantics, pragmatics studies meaning thatgoes beyond propositional content . . .







In contrast to semantics, pragmatics studies meaning thatgoes beyond propositional content . . .

. . . meaning that is context-dependent, intended (but notexplicitly expressed), invited inferences, “speech act meaning”(questions, orders, promises etc)



Präsupposition



Präsupposition

Vergleiche

Karl weiß nicht, dass Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist.

Karl weiß nicht, ob Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist.



Präsupposition

Vergleiche

Karl weiß nicht, dass Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist.Präsupposition: “Rom ist die Hauptstadt von Italien”Karl weiß nicht, ob Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist.



Präsupposition

Vergleiche

Karl weiß nicht, dass Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist.Präsupposition: “Rom ist die Hauptstadt von Italien”Karl weiß nicht, ob Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist. keinePräsupposition!



Präsupposition

Sinn-Komponente, die der Hörer für wahr halten muss, damitder Satz für ihn einen Sinn ergibt



Präsupposition


auch bei Verneinung des Satzes bleibt die Präsuppositionerhalten



Präsupposition



“Karl weiß nicht, dass Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist”und “Karl weiß, dass Rom die Hauptstadt von Italien ist”haben die gleiche Praesupposition.



Präsupposition




die Präsupposition kann nicht verneint werden



Präsupposition





“Karl weiß nicht, dass seine Mannschaft verloren hat, aber siehat gar nicht verloren”



Präsupposition






Der Satz wird “infelicitous”, wenn die Präsupposition falschist.



Präsupposition






Der Satz wird “infelicitous”, wenn die Präsupposition falschist.

“Karl weiß nicht, dass Neapel die Hauptstadt von Italien ist”



Pragmatik: “nur”




(i) nur Hans hat dieses Buch gelesen(ii) Hans hat nur dieses Buch gelesen(iii) Hans hat dieses Buch nur gelesen





Was ist die Bedeutung? Was hat das zu tun mit Pragmatik?






(i) niemand anderes hat dieses Buch gelesen(ii) Hans hat kein anderes Buch gelesen(iii) Hans hat nichts anderes mit diesem Buch getan






(i) niemand anderes hat dieses Buch gelesen(ii) Hans hat kein anderes Buch gelesen(iii) Hans hat nichts anderes mit diesem Buch getan

Skopus = Wirkungsbereich (eines Quantors, eines Adverbs)



Pragmatik: “obwohl”




Hans geht ins Kino, obwohl er krank ist











Hans geht ins Kino, er ist krank, es besteht ein Widerspruchzwischen Ins-Kino-Gehen und Kranksein



Pragmatik: “ganze”




die Reparatur hat ganze zwei Minuten gedauert











die Reparatur hat zwei Minuten gedauert, eine Dauer von zweiMinuten ist kurz fuer diese Art von Reparatur



Pragmatik: “sogar”




sogar Hans schwieg




sogar Hans schwieg





sogar Hans schwieg


Hans schwieg, andere schwiegen, es waere zu erwartengewesen, dass Hans nicht schweigen wuerde



Outline

1 Pragmatics

2 Grice

3 Speech acts



Paul Grice



Paul Grice

speaker meaning = sentence meaning + what is implicated



Paul Grice


what is implicated: based on the assumption that theparticipants in a conversation are cooperating



Paul Grice



Conversation is cooperative behavior and proceeds by rules ofcooperative conduct.



Paul Grice



Conversation is cooperative behavior and proceeds by rules ofcooperative conduct.

→ cooperative principle



Cooperative Principle

Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at thestage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction ofthe talk exchange in which you are engaged.





“Making as is required” has four aspects, the Gricean maxims:






Maxim of quality






Maxim of qualityMaxim of quantity






Maxim of qualityMaxim of quantityMaxim of relevance






Maxim of qualityMaxim of quantityMaxim of relevanceMaxim of manner



Maxim of quality / Tell the truth




Do not say what you believe to be false





Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence






Example: “Did you eat the last piece of pizza?” – “No, Ididn’t.” (assume this is a lie)






Example: “Did you eat the last piece of pizza?” – “No, Ididn’t.” (assume this is a lie)

In this case the maxim is violated.



Maxim of quality / Tell the truth (2)




Example: “This restaurant has one of the best Chinese menusin town.” – “And I’m Queen Marie of Romania.”





Implicature: X = “The restaurant is really bad.”






“I’m Queen Marie of Romania.” does not contain / entail Xand it does not presuppose X. X is an implicature that isjustified by the maxim of quality.






“I’m Queen Marie of Romania.” does not contain / entail Xand it does not presuppose X. X is an implicature that isjustified by the maxim of quality.

In this case the maxim is flouted.



Maxim of quantity / Say just as much as necessary




Make your contribution as informative as is required for thecurrent purpose of the exchange





Do not make the contribution more informative than isrequired






Example: “Did you finish your homework” – “I finished myalgebra” – “Well, get busy and finish your English, too”







Implicature: X = “I didn’t do my English”








“I finished my algebra” does not contain / entail X and itdoes not presuppose X. X is an implicature that is justified bythe maxim of quantity.








“I finished my algebra” does not contain / entail X and itdoes not presuppose X. X is an implicature that is justified bythe maxim of quantity.




Maxim of relevance / Stick to the point




Make your contributions relevant





Example: “Dear colleague, Dr. Jones has asked me to write aletter on his behalf. Let me say that Dr. Jones is unfailinglypolite, is neatly dressed at all times and is always on time forhis classes. Sincerely – Prof. H.P. Smith.”






Implicature: X = “Dr. Jones has none of the skills required forthe job”







The letter does not contain / entail / presuppose X. X is animplicature justified by the maxim of relevance.







The letter does not contain / entail / presuppose X. X is animplicature justified by the maxim of relevance.




Maxim of manner / Be clear




Avoid obscurity




Avoid obscurity

Avoid ambiguity




Avoid obscurity

Avoid ambiguity

Be brief




Avoid obscurity

Avoid ambiguity

Be brief

Be orderly




Avoid obscurity

Avoid ambiguity

Be brief

Be orderly

Example: “I went to the supermarket and bought sugar”




Avoid obscurity

Avoid ambiguity

Be brief

Be orderly


Implicature: X = “I bought sugar at the supermarket afterhaving arrived there” (not before going to the supermarket,not at the convenience store next to the supermarket)




Avoid obscurity

Avoid ambiguity

Be brief

Be orderly



The utterance does not contain / entail / presuppose X. X isan implicature justified by the maxim of manner, specifically“be orderly”.




Avoid obscurity

Avoid ambiguity

Be brief

Be orderly



The utterance does not contain / entail / presuppose X. X isan implicature justified by the maxim of manner, specifically“be orderly”.

In this case the maxim is observed.



Jokes are often based on Gricean violations

I came home last night, and there’s a car in the dining room. I saidto my husband: “How did you get the car in the dining room?” Hesaid: “It was easy. I made a left turn when I came out of thekitchen.”



Generalized conversational implicatures




Based on the cooperative principle (= the four maxims)





Do not depend on the context of the conversation.






Cancelable/defeasible







Examples:







Examples:

A car ran over John’s foot. (implicature: not John’s car, notthe speaker’s car)







Examples:

A car ran over John’s foot. (implicature: not John’s car, notthe speaker’s car)A car ran over John’s foot – actually, it was my own car.







Examples:

A car ran over John’s foot. (implicature: not John’s car, notthe speaker’s car)A car ran over John’s foot – actually, it was my own car.I’ve completed some of the required courses. (implicature: notall)







Examples:

A car ran over John’s foot. (implicature: not John’s car, notthe speaker’s car)A car ran over John’s foot – actually, it was my own car.I’ve completed some of the required courses. (implicature: notall)I’ve completed some of the required courses, actually I’vecompleted all of them. (implicature canceled)



Conventional implicatures




Not based on the cooperative principle (= the four maxims)





They are conventions of lexicon or grammar.













Not cancelable/defeasible








Examples:








Examples:

Donovan is poor but happy. (implicature: contrast)



Exercise

Devise an answer to “What time is it?” that flouts or violatesthe maxim of quality (truth).

Devise an answer to “What time is it?” that flouts or violatesthe maxim of quantity.

Devise an answer to “What time is it?” that flouts or violatesthe maxim of relevance.

Devise an answer to “What time is it?” that flouts or violatesthe maxim of manner (be clear).



Outline

1 Pragmatics

2 Grice

3 Speech acts



Speech acts



Speech acts

Example sentences: “Can you tell me the time?” “Can youopen the window?”



Speech acts


Locutionary act: the act of uttering the words / the sentence



Speech acts



Illocutionary act: the act the utterance is intended to perform(question, assertion, exclamation). Doing something by sayingsomething



Speech acts




Perlocutionary act: the rhetorical act intended by the speakerin performing the illocutionary act (getting the hearer to tellthe speaker what time it is, conveying to the hearer that thespeaker is hot)



Illocutionary speech acts: Performative verbs




assertives = speech acts that commit a speaker to the truthof the expressed proposition. Example: “I believe in God theFather almighty, creator of heaven and earth. I believe inJesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord.”





directives = speech acts that are to cause the hearer to take aparticular action, e.g. requests, commands and advice.Example: “I beg you to leave now.”






commissives = speech acts that commit a speaker to somefuture action, e.g. promises and oaths. Example: “I promisethat I will pay you back the principal plus 5% interest.”






commissives = speech acts that commit a speaker to somefuture action, e.g. promises and oaths. Example: “I promisethat I will pay you back the principal plus 5% interest.”

expressives = speech acts that express the speaker’s attitudesand emotions towards the proposition, e.g. congratulations,excuses and thanks. Example: “I apologize for being late.”



Illocutionary speech acts: Performative verbs (2)




declarations = speech acts that change the reality in accordwith the proposition of the declaration, e.g. baptisms,pronouncing someone guilty or pronouncing someone husbandand wife. “I pronounce you man and wife”




declarations = speech acts that change the reality in accordwith the proposition of the declaration, e.g. baptisms,pronouncing someone guilty or pronouncing someone husbandand wife. “I pronounce you man and wife”

(from Wikipedia)



Exercise



Perlocutionary act: the rhetorical act intended by the speakerin performing the illocutionary act (getting the hearer to tellthe speaker what time it is, conveying to the hearer that thespeaker is hot)

What are the locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionaryreferred to in the following sentences? “In Paris, deputy mayorAnne Hidalgo promised to create a Nelson Mandela street inthe French capital. In the West Bank, Mahmoud Abbas, thePalestinian Authority president declared a day of mourningand ordered all Palestinian flags to be flown at half mast.”



Take-away



Speech acts, performative verbs – language is not just aboutmaking factual statements about the world


Documents

Einführung Computerlinguistik Pragmatikhs/teach/13w/intro/pdf/11pragm.pdfPragmatics Grice Speech acts Semantics: Propositional content The propositional content of a sentence is its