Progress in Botany IFortschritte der Botanik 50

50 Progress in Botany Structural Botany Physiology Genetics Taxonomy Geobotany

Fortschritte der Botanik Struktur Physiologie Genetik Systematik Geobotanik

Editors

H.-Dietmar Behnke, Heidelberg Karl Esser, Bochum Klaus Kubitzki, Hamburg Michael Runge, Gottingen Hubert Ziegler, Milnchen

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo

With 31 Figures

ISBN-13: 978-3-642-74063-3 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-74061-9 DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-74061-9

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage 10 data banks. DuplicatIOn of thIS publication or parts thereof is only permitted under the provIsIons of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its version of June 24, 1985, and a copyright fee must always be paid. ViolatIons fall under the prosecution act of the German Copyright Law.

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1989. LIbrary of Congress Catalog Card Number 33-15850. Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1st edition 1989

The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

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Preface

The 50th volume of Progress in Botany appears in new guise. In cooperation with Springer-Verlag we have changed from the less attractive

typewriter composition to the direct reproduction of a manuscript which was writ­ten by means of a text editing system and produced by a laser printer.

We, the editors, should like to take the appearance of Volume 50 as the occasion for a few short remarks. Our younger readers are perhaps not aware that our Book Series was founded in 1931 by Fritz von Wettstein, based on the following thoughts and considerations, aptly formulated by him in the Preface to the first volume.

"One of the greatest dangers threatening progress in the science of botany is the absolutely unbelievable growth in volume of the literature. The quality of journals, books and individual works that are daily sent to us makes it impossible for anyone person to maintain a general view of the progress made in botany in all the specialized fields, let alone to find time for results from associated su bjects. For varying reasons, every botanist must find this state of matters insupportable. Let us endeavor, in the general interest, to retain a wide background of knowledge, and not become limited specialists. The vitally necessary connections between the specialized fields can only flourish, or even exist, if the general view of botany as a whole can be maintained. Teaching can only be good and comprehensive if lecturers retain an insight into the annual progress made in all aspects of botany.

The aim of "Fortschritte der Botanik", the first volume of which we here present to our colleagues, is an attempt to avert this danger. Realizing that it is no longer possible for the individual scientist, however intensive his literature research, to main­tain a general view without becoming nonproductive in his own specialized field, we have, together with a number of like-minded colleagues, ventured the attempt to col­lect in one short volume reports of the most important progress. Our intention is to issue a similar volume each year, which will briefly present the most important latest knowledge" .

After a short interruption in the last years of the war, the Book Series ap­peared again under the editorship of Ernst Giiumann (Zurich) and Otto Renner (Munchen), then later of Ernst Giiumann and Erwin Biinning (Tubingen) and Erwin Bunning and Heinz Ellenberg (Gottingen). From Volume 27 (1965) on, a reorganization took place. The original single field of botany was divided into five subgroups that still exist today; corresponding to this, an editorial team of five assumed the responsibility. This conception proved successful; it has been retained to the present, and will continue in this form.

Despite a few alterations in the cover design, the Book Series' conversion into the English language from Volume 36 (1974) on is expressed fittingly in the new title, "PROGRESS IN BOTANY".

VI Preface

We hope that with this Book Series we can continue to give our readers the best possible comprehensive overview on progress made in botany, whereby of course, especially in the realms of molecular research, we must look beyond the immediate boundaries, just as we also report on results with organisms which cannot be ordered as plants.

We should like to take the opportunity, also in the name of our readers, to thank the numerous contributors who have undertaken the painstaking work of reporting on genuine progress for their colleagues, in a light, easily understandable form, and have thus contributed to realizing the aims of Fritz von Wettstein.

Like every book or book series, we live from constructive criticism from our readers. We, the editors, will also be grateful in the future for your opinions and suggestions, the readers' contribution to "progress in PROGRESS".

The Editors January 1989

Vorwort

Mit dem 50. Band stellen sich die "Progress in Botany" in einem veriinderten Gewande vor. In Zusammenarbeit mit dem Verlag sind wir von dem nicht sehr ansprechenden Schreibmaschinensatz auf die Direktreproduktion von Vorlagen iibergegangen, die auf einem Textverarbeitungsgeriit erfaSt und iiber einen Laser­Drucker ausgegeben wurden.

Wir, die Herausgeber, mochten das Erscheinen des Bandes 50 zum AnlaS fiir einige kurze Bemerkungen nehmen. Fiir die jiingeren Leser vielleicht unbekannt, unsere Buchreihe wurde im Jahre 1931 durch Fritz von Wettstein begriindet, und zwar basierend auf folgenden Gedanken und Uberlegungen, die er im Vorwort des ersten Bandes treffend formuliert hat: "Eine der gro6ten Gefahren, die dem Fortschreiten der wissenschaftlichen Botanik droht, ist die geradezu in phantastischem Umfange zunehmende Literatur. Die Menge an Zeitschriften, Biichern, Einzelarbeiten, !lie uns taglich zugesandt werden, macht es dem Einzelnen nicht mehr moglich, einen Uberblick iiber den Fortschritt der Botanik in allen Spezialgebieten zu behalten, geschweige denn, sich einigerma6en mit den Ergebnissen von Nachbargebieten zu beschaftigen. Diesen Zustand wird jeder Bo­taniker aus verschiedenen Grunden sehr schmerzlich empfinden. Unser allgemeines Interesse la6t uns bestrebt sein, allgemein geschulte Botaniker zu bleiben, nicht be­grenzte Spezialisten. Die so notwendigen Querverbindungen zwische~ den Spezial­gebieten konnen nur gedeihen oder aufgeschlossen werden, wenn der Uberblick iiber die gesamte Botanik gewahrt bleibt. Die Lehrtatigkeit wird nur dann eine wirklich gute und umfassende sein, wenn die Dozenten einigerma6en Einblick in die jahrlichen Fortschritte in allen Teilen der Botanik behalten.

Die "Fortschritte der Botanik", deren ersten Band wir hiermit den Fachgenossen vorlegen, sollen diese Gefahr ein wenig zu steuern suchen. Nachdem es de!ll Einzelnen nicht mehr moglich ist, durch ein noch so eifriges Literaturstudium den Uberblick zu behalten, ohne in seinem Spezialgebiet unproduktiv zu werden, haben wir mit einer Anzahl gleichgesinnter Mitarbeiter den Versuch gewagt, die wesentlichen Fortschritte in einem knappen Bande zusammenzustellen. Wir beabsichtigen alljahrlich einen solchen Band erscheinen zu lassen, der in knapper Darstellung das Wesentliche der neugewonnenen Erkenntnisse bringen solI."

Nach kurzer Unterbrechung durch die letzten Kriegsjahre konnte die Buchreihe unter Federfiihrung der Herren Gaumann (Ziirich) und Renner (Miinchen), spater dann Gaumann und Biinning (Tiibingen), bzw. Biinning und Ellenberg (Gottingen) wiedererscheinen. Ab Band 27 (1965) erfolgte eine Umgestaltung. Das Gesamt­gebiet der Botanik wurde in die noch heute bestehenden fiinf Gruppen unter­gliedert, und damit verbunden iibernahm ein Herausgeberteam von fiinf Personen die Verantwortung. Dieses Konzept hat sich als erfolgreich erwiesen, ist bis heute 1?eibehalten worden und solI auch fortgefiihrt werden. Abgesehen von einigen Anderungen in der au:Beren Form des Einbandes erfolgte aber mit Band 36 (1974) eine Umstellung in die englische Sprache, die auch in dem neuen Titel "Progress in Botany" zum Ausdruck kam.

VIII Vorwort

Wir hoffen, dafi wir auch in Zukunft unseren Lesern mit dieser Buchreihe einen moglichst umfassenden Uberblick tiber die Fortschritte in der Botanik geben kon­nen. Dabei werden wir auch weiter, vor allem in den molekularen Bereichen, tiber den Zaun hinwegschauen und ebenso von Fortschritten berichten, welche mit Organismen erzielt wurden, die nicht den Pflanzen zugeordnet werden konnen.

Wir mochten die Gelegenheit benutzen, um - auch im Namen unserer Leser -den zahlreichen Referenten zu danken, welche die mtihsame Arbeit tibernommen haben, ihren Kollegen die echten Fortschritte auf ihrem Gebiet in moglichst leich­ter, fafibarer Form zu vermitteln, und die damit die Bestrebungen von Fritz von Wettstein verwirklichen helfen.

Eine kontinuierliche Qualitat jeder Buchreihe hii.ngt von der konstruktiven Kri­tik der Leser abo Wir sind Ihnen auch weiterhin verbunden, wenn Sie uns - die Herausgeber - Meinungen und Anregungen wissen lassen, die letztlich zu einem "Fortschritt der Fortschritte" beitragen.

Die Herausgeber

Contents

A. Structural Botany

I. General and Molecular Cytology: The Plasma Membrane and the Tonoplast

By Udo Kristen

1. Introduction ............................................................. 1 2. The Plasma Membrane (Plasmalemma) .................................. 1

a) PM Isolation and Purification ....................................... 1 b) Lipids ............................................................... 2 c) Proteins ............................................................ 3 d) Exocytosis and PM Recycling ....................................... 5 e) In- and Evaginations of the PM ..................................... 6

3. The Tonoplast (Vacuolar Membrane) .................................... 6 a) Tonoplast Isolation and Purification ................................. 7 b) Lipids ............................................................... 7 c) Proteins ............................................................ 8 d) Vacuole and Tonoplast Origin ...................................... 10

References .............................................................. 10

II. Cytology and Morphogenesis of the Prokaryotic Cell

By Frank Mayer

1. Cytology and Macromolecular Structure: Technical Aspects ............. 14 a) Artifacts ........................................................... 14 b) Elemental Microanalysis ........................................... 14 c) Structure Analysis of Isolated Cytoplasmic Enzymes ................ 15 d) Enzyme Localization by Electron Microscope Immunocytochemistry 15

2. New Isolates and Taxonomical Aspects .................................. 15 a) New Isolates ....................................................... 15 b) A Bacterium Forming up to Five Endospores per Cell .............. 16

3. Structure-Function Aspects at the Cellular Level ........................ 17 a) Vesicle Formation; Cellulose Degradation ........................... 17 b) Polysaccharide Storage Material in Methanogenic Bacteria .......... 18 c) The Inclusion Bodies in Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis .... 18

4. Structure-Function Aspects at the Macromolecular Level ................ 19 a) The Cellulolytic Enzyme Complex in Clostridium thermocellum ..... 19

x Contents

b) An Enzyme Complex Involved in Methane Formation ............... 19 c) Organization ofthe Bacterial Nucleoid ............................. 20

5. Location of Bacterial Enzymes .......................................... 20 6. Morphogenesis and Differentiation ...................................... 21

a) Septation and Filament Splitting in Methanospirillum hungatei ..... 21 b) Dynamics and Differentiation in Cell Envelope Structure ............ 21 c) Size Variation and Differentiation in Phototrophic Bacteria ......... 21 d) Spore Formation and Germination ................................. 22

7. Recognition and Attachment ............................................ 23 References .............................................................. 24

B. Physiology

I. Plant Water Relations

By Rainer Losch

1. Water Relations of Cells and Tissues .................................... 27 2. Root Water Uptake and Water Movement Through the Plant ........... 29 3. Stomatal Control of Transpirational Water Loss ......................... 32 4. Effects of Water Relations on Germination and Growth ................. 35 5. Implications of Water Stress ............................................ 36

a) Drought Effects on Metabolism ..................................... 36 b) Drought Resistance ............................................... : 38

6. Implication of Waterlogged Conditions .................................. 38 7. Habitat Water Relations and Plant Performance ........................ 39 8. Water Relations of Poikilohydric Plants ................................. 41

References .............................................................. 42

II. Mineral Nutrition: Potassium

By Ulrich Liittge and David T. Clarkson. With 1 Figure

1. Introduction ............................................................ 51 2. The Molecular Level: Membrane-Transport Proteins .................... 51 3. The Membrane Level ................................................... 54

a) Interactions and Exchange of Ions and Energy Coupling ............ 54 b) Potassium Channels ................................................ 57

4. The Cellular Level ...................................................... 59 a) Transport Kinetics ................................................. 59 b) Compartment at ion and the Regulation of Transport ................ 60

a) Feedback Systems ............................................. 60 (3) Cytosolic Potassium Homeostasis .............................. 61 ,) Potassium and Cytosolic pH Homeostasis .......... ' ............ 62

5. The Physiological Level ................................................. 63 a) Physiological Processes in General .................................. 63 b) Stomatal Guard Cell Movements ................................... 63 c) Rhythms ........................................................... 64 d) Growth and Phytohormone Interactions ............................ 64 e) Na+ /K+-Selectivity and Salinity Responses ........................ 65

Contents XI

f) Sugar Translocation in the Phloem ................................. 66 6. The Whole-Plant and Nutritional Level ................................. 66 7. Conclusions ............................................................ 68

References .............................................................. 69

III. Photosynthesis. Carbon Metabolism: New Regulators of CO2

Fixation, the New Importance of Pyrophosphate, and the old Problem of Oxygen Involvement Revisited

By Grahame J. Kelly, Joseph A.M. Holtum and Erwin Latzko. With 4 Figures

1. Introduction ............................................................ 74 2. Inorganic Carbon Uptake ............................................... 75 3. Investigations with Isolated Plastids .................................... 75 4. The Return of RuBP Carboxylase ...................................... 76 5. RuBP Carboxylase and the Limits to Photosynthesis .................... 78 6. The Other Calvin Cycle Enzymes ....................................... 80 7. Light-Mediated Enzyme Regulation ..................................... 81 8. Starch Metabolism ..................................................... 82 9. Sucrose Metabolism: Fructose-2,6-P2 , and a Role for PPi? .............. 82

10. Mitochondrial Respiration in Illuminated Photosynthetic Cells? ......... 84 11. Photorespiration ........................................................ 86 12. The Many Roles of O2 in Photosynthetic Carbon Metabolism ........... 87 13. C4 Plants .............................................................. 88

a) Transport of Pyruvate ............................................. 89 b) Transport of PEP ................................................... 89 c) Transport of Malate ................................................ 90 d) Transport of Inorganic Carbon ..................................... 90 e) Enzymes ........................................................... 90 f) Control of Carbon Partitioning ..................................... 91

14. C3-C4 Intermediates .................................................... 91 15. CAM Plants ............................................................ 92

a) Carbon Partitioning ................................................ 92 b) Malic Acid Accumulation .......................................... 95

References .............................................................. 95

IV. Secondary Plant Substances. Nonsteroidal Triterpenoids

By Horst-Robert Schutte. With 9 Figures

1. Introduction ........................................................... 102 2. Oleanane and Ursante-Type Triterpenoids ............................. 102 3. Different Triterpenoids ................................................ 105 4. Limonoids ........................................................ ' ..... 107 5. Cucurbitacins ......................................................... 111

References ............................................................ 112

XII Contents

v. Growth

By Karl DorfHing and Carmen Crocoll. With 6 Figures

1. General Reviews ...................................................... 116 2. Abscicic Acid ......................................................... 116

a) Reviews .......................................................... 116 b) Methods of Determination ........................................ 116 c) Occurrence and Biosynthesis ...................................... 117 d) Metabolism ....................................................... 119 e) Physiological and Molecular Mode of Action ....................... 120

3. Ethylene .............................................................. 123 a) Reviews .......................................................... 123 b) Methods of Determination ........................................ 123 c) Biosynthesis and Its Regulation ................................... 124 d) Physiological and Molecular Mode of Action ....................... 126

References ............................................................ 128

VI. Developmental Physiology

By Berthold Hock. With 4 Figures

1. Gene Expression ...................................................... 133 a) Organ- and Tissue-Specific Gene Expression ....................... 134 b) Phytochrome-Regulated Gene Expression ......................... 135 c) Heat Shock Responses ............................................ 137

a) Heat Shock Proteins .......................................... 137 13) Gene Expression ............................................. 137 'Y) Functions .................................................... 138

d) Wounding ........................................................ 138 2. Phytochrome .......................................................... 140

a) Serological Properties ............................................. 140 b) Intracellular Localization .......................................... 141 c) Ubiquitin ......................................................... 142

a) Electron Microscopic Studies ................................. 142 13) Biochemical Studies .......................................... 143

3. Elongation Growth .................................................... 145 a) Extensibility of the Outer Epidermal Cell Wall as Growth-Limiting

Factor ............................................................ 145 b) Microfibril Orientation as Regulatory Element ..................... 146 c) Matrix Components ...................................... , ........ 147 d) Cell Wall Proteins ................................................ 147 e) Molecular Mechanisms of Growth Induction ....................... 148

4. Circadian Rhythm .......................................... .' .......... 150 a) Clock Mutants .................................................... 151 b) The Role of Protein Synthesis ..................................... 151 c) Temperature Compensation ....................................... 152

References ............................................................ 153

Contents XIII

VII. Physiology of Movements in Space Experiments

By Wolfgang Hensel

1. Introduction ........................................................... 158 2. Growth and Orientation of Gravitropic Organs ......................... 159 3. Structure of Root Statocytes .......................................... 159 4. Circumnutation and Epinasty ......................................... 160

References ............................................................ 161

C. Genetics

I. Replication

By Rudolf Eichenlaub. With 2 Figures

1. Introduction ........................................................... 163 2. Structural Analysis of the Origin of Replication (OriC) ................ 163 3. Proteins and Enzymatic Functions Required for Replication Initiation .. 165

a) DnaA-Protein ..................................................... 165 b) DnaBJDnaC Proteins ............................................. 165 c) RNA-Priming ..................................................... 166 d) DNA Synthesis by DNA Polymerase III ........................... 166 e) Elongation ........................................................ 167

4. Control of the Initiation of Replication ................................. 169 5. Termination of Replication ............................................ 169 6. Outlook ............................................................... 171

References ............................................................ 171

II. Recombination: Recombination of Mobile Genetic Elements from Plants and Cyanobacteria

By Heinz D. Osiewacz and Ute Heinen. With 2 Figures

1. Introduction ........................................................... 174 2. Mobile Elements in Higher Plants ..................................... 174

a) Transposons ...................................................... 174 0:) Transposons Have Been Identified in a Number of Higher Plants 174 (3) Transposons Generate DNA Rearrangements .................. 175 "I) Transposons May Influence Plant Gene Expression ............ 176 8) Plant Transposons Have a Characteristic Sturcture and May

Code for Polypeptides ........................................ 179 b) Plasmids .......................................................... 180

0:) Linear Plant Plasmids Contain Terminal Inverted Repeats, .... 180 (3) Plasmids Sl and S2 Generate Genome Instabilities ............ 180 "I) Plasmids Have Been Identified in a Number of Different Plants 180

c) Promiscuous DNA ................................................ 182 0:) Genetic Information May Be Transferred Between Organelles .. 182 (3) Mechanisms for Transfer of Genetic Information Between

Organelles .................................................... 182

XIV Contents

3. Mobile Elements in Cyanobacteria ..................................... 183 a) In Anabaena a Mobile Genetic Element is Associated with the

Regulation of Gene Expression ............................... 183 4. Mobile Elements in Fungi .............................................. 184

a) Ty Elements in Saccharomyce8 cerevi8iae .......................... 184 a) Different Strains of S.cerevi8iae Contain Transposons with a

Common Structure ........................................... 184 (:3) Ty Elements Are Transposons Closely Related to Retroviruses . 184 1) Transposition of Ty Elements May Influence Gene Expression . 185 8) Ty Elements and Other Repetitive Sequences Provide Homo-

logous Sequences for DNA Rearrangements ................... 186 b) Mating Type Switching in Yeast .................................. 186

a) Transposition of a Mating Type Cassette Leads to Mating Type Switching .................................................... 187

c) Plasmids and Introns ............................................. 188 a) A Linear Plasmid Is Correlated with Senescence in N eur08pora

intermedia ................................................... 188 (:3) A Circular Plasmid Controlling Senescence in Podo8pora

an8erina Is Derived from a Mitochondrial Intron .............. 189 1) Some Mitochondrial Plasmids from N eur08pora May Be Derived

from Mitochondrial Introns ................................... 189 8) A Mitochondrial Intron of Saccharomyce8 cerevi8iae Contains

the Ability for Transposition .................................. 190 d) Promiscuous DNA ................................................ 191

a) In N eur08pora cra88a the Expressed Copy of the Gene Coding ATPase Subunit 9 is Located in the Nuclear Genome ......... 191

(:3) In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Rearranged Nucleotide Sequences from the Mitochondrial DNA Are Present in the Nuclear Genome ...................................................... 191

5. Conclusions ........................................................... 191 References ............................................................ 192

III. Extranuclear Inheritance: Mitochondrial Genetics

By Wolfgang Ecke, Gunter Pannenbecker, Otto WaSmund, and Georg Michaelis. With 2 Figures

1. Introduction ........................................................... 198 2. Organization of the Mitochondrial Genome in Higher Plants ........... 198 3. Chimeric Genes Causing Cytoplasmic Male Sterility .................... 201 4. Recombination of Mitochondrial DNA in Somatic Hybrids ............. 203 5. Mitochondrial Gene Expression: Progress in Yeast ..................... 203 6. Import of RNA into Mitochondria ..................................... 204 7. Prospects ................................................... ~ ......... 204

References ............................................................ 204

Contents

IV. Recognition and Pathogenicity in Bacterial Plant Pathogens

By FriedheIm Meinhardt

xv

1. Introduction ........................................................... 207 2. Agrobacterium tumefaciens ............................................ 208 3. Pseudomonas syringae savastonoi ...................................... 209 4. Soft rot Erwinias ...................................................... 210 5. Pathogenicity and Avirulence .......................................... 210 6. Conclusions ........................................................... 211

References ............................................................ 211

D. Taxonomy

I. Systematics and Evolution of the Algae

By Michael Melkonian

1. General Aspects ....................................................... 214 2. Cyanobacteria ......................................................... 215

a) Reviews and Monographic Treatments ............................. 215 b) Molecular Evolution .............................................. 216 c) Taxonomy ........................................................ 216 d) Prochloron and Other Chlorophyll a and b-Containing

Cyanobacteria .................................................... 217 3. Rhodophyta ........................................................... 217

a) Phylogeny of Rhodophyta ......................................... 217 b) Books, Reviews ................................................... 218 c) Systematics and Taxonomy ....................................... 218 d) Life History ....................................................... 219 e) Cellular Organization ............................................. 220

4. Dinophyta ............................................................ 221 a) Phylogeny of Dinophyta ........................................... 221 b) Books and Reviews ............................................... 222 c) Cellular Organization ............................................. 222 d) Life History ....................................................... 222 e) Taxonomy ........................................................ 223

5. Cryptophyta .......................................................... 223 6. Chromophyta ......................................................... 224

a) Prymnesiophyceae ................................................ 225 b) Raphidophyceae .................................................. 225 c) Pedinellophyceae .................................................. 226 d) Dictyochophyceae ................................................. 226 e) Diatomophyceae ............................................. : .... 226

Q) Books, Reviews .............................................. 226 ;3) Cellular Organization and Biochemical Phylogeny ............. 227 I) Phylogeny and Taxonomy .................................... 227

f) Synurophyceae .................................................... 228 g) Tribophyceae ..................................................... 229 h) Chrysophyceae .................................................... 229

XVI Contents

i) Fucophyceae ...................................................... 230 j) Bicosoecophyceae ................................................. 232 k) Eustigmatophyceae ............................................... 232

7. Chlorarachniophyta ................................................... 232 8. Euglenophyta ......................................................... 233 9. Glaucocystophyta ..................................................... 234

10. Chlorophyta ........................................................... 234 a) Books, Reviews ................................................... 234 b) Prasinophyceae ................................................... 235 c) Charophyceae ..................................................... 235 d) Ulvophyceae ...................................................... 236 e) Chlorophyceae .................................................... 236 f) Taxa of Uncertain Affinities ....................................... 237

References ............................................................ 237

II. Taxonomy and Phylogeny of Fungi

By Walter Gams and Walter Jiilich

1. General Topics ........................................................ 246 a) Fungal Development .............................................. 246 b) Chemotaxonomy and Serology .................................... 246 c) Genetics and Molecular Biology ................................... 246 d) Regional Treatments and Ecological Groups ....................... 247

2. Myxomycota .......................................................... 247 3. Labyrinthulomycota ................................................... 247 4. Oomycota ............................................................. 248 5. Chytridiomycota ...................................................... 248 6. Zygomycota ........................................................... 248 7. Ascomycota ........................................................... 249

a) Hemiascomycetes ................................................. 249 b) Euascomycetes .................................................... 250

8. Fungi Imperfecti (Deuteromycota) ..................................... 254 a) Coelomycetes ..................................................... 254 b) Hyphomycetes .................................................... 254

9. Basidiomycota ........................................................ 255 a) General Aspects .................................................. 255 b) Phragmobasidiomycotina (Heterobasidiomycetes) .................. 256 c) Holobasidiomycotina .............................................. 257

References ............................................................ 259

III. Systematics, Morphology and Ecology of Lichenized Fungi

By H.M. Jahns

1. Taxonomy ............................................................. 267 a) General Problems of Lichen Taxonomy ............................ 267 b) Taxonomic Research on Different Groups .......................... 269

2. Evolution ............................................................. 270 3. Morphology ........................................................... 270

Contents XVII

a) Morphology of the Thallus ........................................ 270 b) Ecological Morphology ............................................ 272

4. Growth Development, Reproduction and Distribution .................. 272 5. Ecology ............................................................... 273

a) Lichens and Abiotic Environment ................................. 273 b) Lichens and Biotic Environment ................................... 274 c) Phytosociology .................................................... 275 d) Floristic and Mapping ............................................ 275 e) Pollution ......................................................... 276

6. Photobionts ........................................................... 277 References ............................................................ 277

IV. Systematics of the Bryophytes

By Jan-Peter Frahm

1. General Aspects ....................................................... 284 2. Taxonomy ............................................................. 284

a) General ........................................................... 284 b) Monographs, Revisions ............................................ 285 c) Chemosystematics ................................................ 286 d) Cytosystematics .................................................. 287

3. Nomenclature ......................................................... 288 4. Floristics .............................................................. 288

a) Checklists ........................................................ 288 b) Regional Floras .................................................... 289

5. Phylogeny, Evolution .................................................. 289 6. Geography, Ecology ................................................... 290 7. Morphology, Anatomy ................................................. 292 8. Applied Bryology ...................................................... 292

References ............................................................ 293

V. Systematics of the Pteridophytes

By Karl U. Kramer

1. Systematics ........................................................... 295 2. Bibliography, Collections, Nomenclature ............................... 297 3. Floristics .............................................................. 297 4. Geography and Ecology ............................................... 299 5. Morphology and Anatomy ............................................. 301 6. Chemotaxonomy ...................................................... 303 7. Cytotaxonomy, Biosystematics, Hybridization .......................... 304 8. Folklore, Uses .................................................... : .... 306 9. Fern Allies ............................................................ 306

References ............................................................ 308

XVIII Contents

VI. Palaeobotany

By Else Marie Friis

1. Phylogeny and Diversification of Fossil Angiosperms ................... 312 a) The Anthophyte Clade ............................................ 312 b) Radiation and Vegetational Changes .............................. 313

2. Description of Floras .................................................. 315 a) Cretaceous Floras ................................................. 315 b) Tertiary Floras ................................................... 316

3. Systematic Studies .................................................... 317 a) Unassigned Angiosperms .......................................... 317 b) Magnoliidae ...................................................... 317 c) Ranunculidae ..................................................... 318 d) Hamamelididae ................................................... 318 e) Caryophyllidae .................................................... 321 f) Dilleniidae ........................................................ 321 g) Rosidae ........................................................... 322 h) Asteridae ......................................................... 323 i) Monocotyledones ................................................. 323

References ............................................................ 324

E. Geobotany

I. The History of Flora and Vegetation During the Quaternary

By Burkhard Frenzel. With 5 Figures

1. Major Problems ....................................................... 327 2. Pleistocene Extinctions in Northern Eurasia ........................... 329

Appendix 1 ........................................................... 335 References ............................................................ 336

II. Vegetation Science (Sociobiological Geobotany)

By Klaus Dierf3en

1. General Trends ........................................................ 341 2. Monographs and Bibliographies ........................................ 341 3. Methods and General Results .......................................... 342

a) Vegetation Dynamics ............................................. 342 b) Vegetation Mapping .............................................. 342 c) Vegetation Complexes and Biocenological Aspects ................. 343

4. Application to Nature Conservation, Landscape Ecology, and Environmental Control ............................................ 343

5. Vegetation of the Boreal Zone ......................................... 344 6. Vegetation of the Temperate and Submeridional Zone .................. 345

a) Forests and Shrublands ........................................... 345 b) Grasslands and Dwarf Shrub Heaths .............................. 345 c) Weed Communities and Ruderal Vegetation ....................... 346

Contents XIX

d) Cryptogamic Synusiae ............................................ 346 7. Vegetation of the Meridional Zone ..................................... 347

a) Forests and Shrublands ........................................... 347 b) Grasslands Including Coastal Vegetation .......................... 347

8. Vegetation of Subtropical and Tropical Areas .......................... 348 a) Forest Vegetation ................................................. 348 b) Savanna and Grassland Vegetation ................................ 348

References ............................................................ 348

F. Special Topics

I. Floral Ecology

By Gerhard Gottsberger

1. Introduction ........................................................... 352 2. Functional Significance of Flowers and Inflorescences, Flower Longevity,

Metabolism and Movements ........................................... 353 3. Means of Attraction, Rewards ......................................... 354

a) Visual Patterns and Pigmentation .... " ........................... 354 b) Production of Heat and Scent ..................................... 355 c) Nectaries and Nectar .............................................. 356 d) Oil Secretion and Resins .......................................... 357 e) Pollen and Pollen Presentation .................................... 357

4. Pollinator Behavior, Pollinator Efficiency, Flower Constancy, Foraging Strategies .................................................... 358

5. Flower Classes and Their Evolution .................................... 359 a) Zoophily .......................................................... 359

a) Evolution and Pollination of Early Angiosperms; Cantharophily, Thrips as Flower Visitors ...................... 359

13) Melittophily and Ant Pollination ............................. 361 I) Psychophily, Sphingophily and Phalaenophily ................. 362 c) Ornithophily ................................................. 362 c) Mammal Pollination .......................................... 363

b) Anemophily and Hydrogamy ...................................... 364 6. Pollination of Particular Groups; Flower Biological Radiation .......... 364

a) Differentiation of Various Angiosperms at the Species, Genus, and Family Level ................................................. 364

b) Orchids ........................................................... 365 c) Economy of Pollination and Crop Plants .......................... 366

7. Populational Aspects, Gender Distribution and Breeding Systems ...... 367 a) Pollen-Pistil Interaction ........................................... 367 b) Incompatibility Versus Compatibility; Cleistogamy; Apomixis ...... 368 c) Sex Distribution; Monoecism Versus Dioecism ................ ; .... 368 d) Heterostyly ....................................................... 370 e) Reproductive Success ............................................. 370

8. Pollination Studies at the Community Level, Distribution of Flower Types, Flowering Phenology and Nature Preservation .................. 370 References ............................................................ 371

Subject Index ........................................................... 381

List of Editors

Section A: Professor Dr. H.-D. BEHNKE, Zellenlehre, Universitat Heidelberg, 1m Neuenheimer Feld 230, D-6900 Heidelberg, FRG

Section B: Professor Dr. H. ZIEGLER, Institut fUr Botanik und Mikrobiologie, Teclmische Universitiit Miinchen, Arcisstra.f3e 21, D-8000 Miinchen 2, FRG

Section C: Professor Dr. Dr. h.c. K. ESSER, Lehrstuhl fur Allgemeine Botanik, Ruhr-Universitiit Bochum, Postfach 102148, D-4630 Bochum 1, FRG

Section D: Professor Dr. K. KUBITZKI, Institut fUr Allgemeine Botanik und Botanischer Garten, Universitiit Hamburg, OhnhorststraBe 18, D-2000 Hamburg 52, FRG

Section E: Professor Dr. M. RUNGE, Lehrstuhl fiir Geobotanik, Systematisch­Geobotanisches Institut der Universitiit Gottingen, Untere Klarspiile 2, 0-3400 Gottingen, FRG

Section F: Professor Dr. K. KUBITZKI, Institut fur Allgemeine Botanik und Botanischer Garten, Universitiit Hamburg, OhnhorststraJ3e 18, 0-2000 Hamburg 52, FRG