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A geochronological perspective on erosion
Francis Albarede
Where it all began: the Swiss Alps (Jäger, Niggli, & Wenk, Beiträge sur Geologischen Karten der Schweiz, 134, 1967)
K-Ar mica ages
Hunziker et al. (1992)
Insubric Line
Rb-Sr mica ages
Hunziker et al. (1992)
Insubric Line
Zircon fission-track ages
What were the questions then?
• Why geochronological ages are distinctively younger in the metamorphic core of the Alps?
• Which dynamic for mountain ranges?• What does a geochronological age date?• Closure temperature vs paragenetic PT
estimates• What is the magnitude of erosion rate?
What are the questions now?
• What is the record of continental crust erosion over different time scales, Quaternary, Cenozoic, Phanerozoic?
• What is the ratio between mechanical erosion and chemical weathering?
• What is the record of CO2 consumption by weathering?
Early thermal models
PTt trajectories of Massif Central granulites
Contrary to the Alps, granulite exhumation seems too fast (3-5 km/m.y.) to be driven by erosion only and must correspond to a tectonic event.
Initial granulite paragenesis
Final retrogressive paragenesis
(Albarede, BSGF 1976)
England and Thompson (1984)
Bringing geological evidence and thermal models of tectonic and erosion together (Thompson and Ridley, 1987)
Modeling tectonics and erosion amounts to reconstructing a flow field in the crust.
The flow field is strongly temperature-dependent.
Material conservation (Euler equation)
vz
vx
velocity
If the medium is incompressible
The forms of the heat transport equation
Lagrangian‘with the stream’
derivative
Eulerian‘on the ground’
derivative
advective transport
conductive transport
Heatgeneration
K is thermal diffusivity (m2/s), A the heat production rate (J/m3/s) and cP is the heat capacity
Eulerian fishermen
A Lagrangian fisherman
Rock and mineral samples are the ‘Lagrangian buoys’ of metamorphic geology !
Heat transport at steady state
K is thermal diffusivity (m2/s), A the heat production rate (J/m3/s) and cP is the heat capacity
In one dimension and at steady-state (u=-vz>0), this equation becomes:
Selecting a characteristic length l, we define the Peclet number as:
so
Erosion rates, at last!
or
The thermal boundary layer thickness l= k/u ~0.63 T∞ therefore gives a straightforward indication of the erosion rates.
0.63
T∞
becomes
The slope of these lines is u/k
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 3500
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
z km
ln T
∞/(
T∞-T
)
1 km/a
0.5 km/a
0.1 km/a
Effect of phase changes• Mineral reactions do not have a
significant effect on dT/dz.• Melting flattens the path in the z-
T plot, while crystallization makes it steeper or may even reverse it.
• The apparent effect of melting and crystallization is to multiply heat capacity cp by 1 + (L/c p DT), where L is latent heat, DT is the melting range, and L/cp ~ 300 K.
Brower (EPSL 2004)
melting
crystallization
Is rugged topography an issue ?
Turcotte and Schubert (1982)
The thermal effect of topography dies out with a length scale of /2 : l p a mountain with a foothold of 10 km produces no thermal effect below ~2 km.
The velocity field in the crust constrains erosion rates
Anomalous temperature gradient recorded by mineral assemblages
Tectonics is an integral part of the velocity field
Erosion rates can therefore be calculated:
1. from PT estimates in metamorphic series2.from the PTt path of a particular sample (go to
cooling age theory) 3. from alterations of the heat flow
A PT metamorphic grid
Kerrick et al. (EPSL,2001)
Example of a conductive cooling path of Maine plutons
Heizler et al. (AJS, 1988)
Advective cooling: Münchberg eclogites, Variscan Bohemia
Duchêne et al. (AJS 1988)
The cooling age theory
Martin H. Dodson (1932-2010)
Bulk Closure Temperature Equation
Where
Tc = closure temperature
D0, E = diffusion parameters
R = gas constant
A = geometric term (55 for a sphere, 27 for a cylinder, 8.7 for a plane sheet)
a = effective diffusion dimension
dT/dt = cooling rate
Diffusion is a thermally activated process
The closure temperature Tc is the tempe-rature of a system at the time of its measured date (Dodson, 1973).
Loss of nuclides from a sphereConstant T and therefore constant D. The fraction F of nuclide remaining at t is:
(radius a, diffusion coefficient D). If T varies, and therefore D as D(T(t)), let us define t as
The fraction of nuclide remaining at t is:
Approximation valid for F>0.15:
1. A hyperbolic cooling rate
which is a good approximation
The critical assumptions that made Dodson’s model successful
2. A time scale q
The system is assumed to cool fast enough for the transition to be very short relative to the rate of decay. A ‘closure’ tc and therefore a closure temperature Tc and a closure age tc are assumed.
t > tc t < tc
Defining the closure temperature Tc
The dimensionless arameter tc is assumed to be constant (although geometry dependent) and therefore
In the widely used form:
For a spherical mineral tc =1/55 =1/A.
D0 and Ei are experimentally determined for each element in each mineral
Farley (2000): helium diffusion in apatite
Slope = -Ei/RIntercept: ln D0
Hodges (1991)
Mineral gasEa
(kJ/mol) Do (m2/s) a (mm) for Tc geo Tc Tc Tc E/RTc Dc Reference1 °C/Myr 10 °C/Myr 100 °C/Myr
Apatite He 138 3.16E-03 75 sph 58 73 90 44.8 1.1E-22 "best estimate" of Farley (2000)Zircon He 164 1.95E-05 75 cyl 167 190 215 40.5 5.1E-23 ave of Reiners et al. (2004), Cherniak
and Watson (2010)Titanite He 174 8.77E-04 250 sph 173 196 220 42.4 3.3E-22 ave of Shuster et al. (2004), Cherniak and
Watson (2009), Reiners and Farley (1999)
Monazite He 202 1.25E-03 75 sph 216 239 264 45.3 2.6E-23 ave of Cherniak and Watson (2009), Boyce et al. (2005), Farley (2007)
Plagioclase Ar 168 1.42E-04 500 sph 189 213 240 39.7 8.1E-22 Cassatta et al. (2009) (average)K Feldspar Ar 177 1.84E-07 500 sph 295 330 370 33.9 3.6E-22 ave of Clay et al. (unpub.), Foland
(1974), Wartho et al. (1999) (low T)Biotite Ar 197 7.5E-06 500 cyl 313 347 384 36.8 7.5E-22 McDougall and Harrison (1999)Muscovite Ar 264 2.3E-04 500 cyl 449 487 529 40.5 6.1E-22 Harrison et al. (2009)Hornblende Ar 276 6.0E-06 500 sph 532 577 628 38.0 1.8E-22 Harrison (1981)Quartz Ar 43 3.1E-19 500 sph 183 276 411 9.0 3.7E-23 Thomas et al. (2008) & Watson and
Cherniak (2003)
Baxter (RMG72, 2010)
Reiners (AREPS,2006)
Pb model ages in the crust
Cherniak (CMP, 1995)
• Tc depends on the cooling rate and grain size.• Lead in the crust is largely held in K-feldspar.• Pb-Pb model ages reflect the onset of melting or more
probably the ‘softening’ temperature of the crust.
Pb model ages of Europe
U-Pb zircon
Lu-Hf garnet
K-Ar amphibole
K-Ar K-feldsparU-He apatite
Fission-track zircon
Pb-Pb feldsparsK-Ar and Rb-Sr muscovite
Cooling and uplift history of the Lepontine Central Alps
Hurford (CMP, 1986)
Mean cooling patterns north of the Insubric Line.
Hurford (CMP 1986)
Direct determination of erosion rates dz/dT in the French Alps
apatite fission tracksTc=104°C
zircon fission tracksTc=230°C
Van der Beck et al. (EPSL, 2010)
Same samples!
Coast Plutonic Complex in south-eastern Alaska (Reiners, AREPS 2006)
Apparent variations in erosion rates are most often assigned to geological history.
ZFT (red, 230-300°C)ZHe (orange, 183°C)AFT (light blue, 104°C)AHe (dark blue, 70°C)
Erosion rate may also have remained constant and we may see an effect of lateral advection (gravity, tectonics) at shallow depth and to some extent of topography.
Apatite He
Apatite FT
Zircon He
Zircon FT
The concept of closure applies to all mineral equilibria
The impact on the interpretation of parageneses and on geothermobarometry is important and largely ignored in the literature.Examples: Fe-Mg in clinopyroxene (Tc~800°C), Fe-Mg in garnet (700°C), O in quartz (500°C).
Mineral equilibrium is a dream!
Farewell Symphony(Haydn, 1772)
Limitations to the concept of closure temperature
Dodson (1986): During the early stages of cooling rapid diffusion ensures that the concentration everywhere stays close to the equilibrium value as it changes with temperature. However, the rate of diffusion diminishes rapidly with decreasing temperature, so the concentration in the interior begins to lag behind that at the surface. Eventually the system ‘closes’ initially at the centre, and subsequently nearer to the outside, the concentration approaches a limit at which the whole grain is effectively isolated from its surroundings, except for an infinitesimal surface layer.
Trying to fix it for 30 years
• Dodson (1986). Define a closure temperature at each point x inside the mineral. G(x) is the ‘closure’ function.
• Ganguly and Tyrone (1999). An arbitrary diffusion profile at t=0.
Lagrangian (conductive) cooling
Rocks at different depth had different Tc because they come from different depths.
Rate of cooling at the cooling temperature
Alternatively, it is in principle possible to map T∞ (deep crust) using the rates u of erosion
Inversion of 39Ar-40Ar degassing spectra
40K decay scheme
40 40* ( )( 1)te
t
Ar K e
40
40
1 *ln 1t
t e
Art
K
Unknowns: 40Ar* : radiogenic 40Ar from 40K decay (isotope dilution)40K : a small fraction of total K (measure K conc.
and use abundance %)
g
40Ar-39Ar Dating
- based on K-Ar dating- bombard sample with fast neutrons, 39K --> 39Ar
Converting 39K into 39Ar brings the following advantages:1. You can obtain K (39Ar) and 40Ar data from the same sample2. Ar isotopic ratios are the only measurements required (high precision)3. You can measure Ar ratios as you slowly heat the sample
40
39
1 *ln 1
t
Art J
Ar
40 39
1
* /
TeJ
Ar Ar
where
J calculated from bombarding and measuring samples of known age (T)
So…Older samples have higher 40Ar*/39Ar values
andAltered regions of samples have lower 40Ar*/39Ar values
due to loss of 40Ar*
Principles of the 39Ar-40Ar method(Merrihue and Turner, 1964)
Harrison and Zeitler (2005)
Retrieving the distribution of Ar isotopes from the monomineralic anorthosite 15145
(Albarede, EPSL 1978)
Turner (1972)
Radiogenic 40Ar concentration profile in plagioclase
(Albarede, EPSL 1978)
Inversion of K-feldspar 39Ar-40Ar degassing spectra: the Multiple Diffusion Domain Theory
(Harrison et al., RMG 2005)
The stepwise outgassing experiment is also a diffusion experimentFraction of a uniformly distributed isotope(e.g., 39Ar) left at t:
while
The multiple diffusion domain (MDD) theory of Lovera et al. (1989) assumes that a crystal is made of multiple fractions of domains with different radii and identical activation energy.
Different strategies: least-square fit, Monte-Carlo search.
Harrison et al. (2005)
Thermal history reconstruction from 39Ar-40Ar spectra(Harrison et al., RMG 2005)
A contribution of this class: a relationship between temperature T∞ in the deep crust and erosion rate
Paradox: For a given Tc, T∞ increases as the inverse of the squared erosion rate. This only means that it takes longer to cool hotter material by conduction than cooler layers.
The rise of hot deep crust is associated with erosion rates in the order of ~0.1 km a-1. Faster erosion rates bring cold crust to the surface.
Leaky chronomometers (Albarede, GRL, 2003; Guralnik, EPSL, 2013)
Some geochronometers spend their life above their cooling temperature. They are only useful when the rocks are erupted very fast (volcanic xenoliths, UHP metamorphism).
These chronometers remain above their closure temperature under conditions at which they are neither entirely open, nor entire closed.
Significance of the thermobarometric mantle geotherms relative to mineral closure temperaturesClosure temperatures with respect to Fe-Mg exchange are in the order of 800°C. What is the behavior of Sm-Nd and Lu-Hf chronometers under such conditions?
Bell et al. (Lithos, 2003)
Open system behavior of leaky chronometers176Lu-176Hf and 147Sm-143Nd apparent ages on garnet peridotite inclusions in South African kimberlites(Bedini et al., EPSL, 2004)
Albarede’s (2003) solution for leaky chronometersP: parent isotope, D* radiogenic isotope, radial coordinate r, radius a
Dodson’s change of variable
Solution for T>Tc
Age deficit DT:
Evolution of DT, the difference between the crystallization age and the apparent 147Sm-143Nd age, with time t for a 1 mm spherical pyrope crystal as a result of volume diffusion. Open circles: closure temperatures. (Albarède, 2003)
Relationship between the cooling rate and the temperature T0 at t = 0 deduced from the 147Sm-143Nd age deficit DT of a 1 mm pyrope crystal formed at 2.9 Ga. Cooling rate -dT /dt = aT0
2 . Open circles: closure temperature
Application to garnet Sm-Nd ages of peridotite inclusions in kimberlite from South Africa
Bedini et al., EPSL, 2004)
Application to garnet Sm-Nd ages of peridotite inclusions in kimberlite from other regions
Had enough of equations?