By TS'AO PO·NINO

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NOIl1Mre 'n eM world Acu 1M ftGIio-' cAcarat:ur &... mold«l #0 .erongly brliUrGry "..,. M in CINno. H.- II wry~ -r oJ _udyirtg low inCII.no w tItrou91l ,... ..-1#. ~, ,... clMrioal ..-1#. w.\ic1I. cAotIgII_ingly oue oJ dtJU, _ill MIl' eo tUlermiM 1M life oJ ".. CAi_ peopl4.

TIle lIudlor W II proJu«w oJ CJ1ai_ Huralut'e, J_Iy leocAirtg in Mul:cIenand nolD i" Pelcirtg.-K.M.

T HE kaleidoscope of love affairs asreflected in old Chinese novels wasentirely different from the usual

occurrence in the West. Occidentals hadsocial intercourse between men andwomen directly and in publio, whereas inChina. until twenty or thirty years ago.it had to take place indirectly or insecrecy. Suoh formulas as embracing agirl's waist at a ball and shaking orkissing a woman's hand as an expressionof friendship had never been allowed inour oountry before the revolution of 1911.This difference of oustom painted thedifferent pioture of romance. This pointI may illustrate by a comparison betweentwo famous novels. First a few linesfrom Leo Tolstoy's AnntJ KarenintJ:

He caught sight of Kitty, entering, andflew up to her with that peculiar, easy amblewhich is confined to directors of balla.Without even asking her if she cared todanoe, he put out his arm to encircle herslender waist. She looked round for someone to give her fan to, and their hostess,smiling to her, took it.

"How nice you've come in good time,"he said to her, embracing her waist; "such abad habit to be late." Bending her lefthand, she laid it on his shoulder, and her

little feet in their pink slippers began swiftly,lightly, and rhythmically moving over theslippery floor in time to the music.

And in comparison a quotation fromTs'ao Hsueh-ehin's Dream oj 1M BedOhamber:

Pao-yil realized that he had blunderedagain. His face was.flushed with embaJT888'mente Tai-yil looked at him pityingly fora moment and then pointed her finger onhis forehead and said "You ...." But shedid not finish. She sighed and took herhandkerchief to dry her tears. Pao·yil wasagain weeping. He made a motion to wipehis tears with his sleeve, as he did not havehis handkerchief. but Tai-ytl hutily gavehim one of her own. Pao-yil took it andwiped his eyes with it. Then he drewnearer to Tai.ytl and said, taking her hands,"You are breaking my heart with yourtears. Let us all go to see Lao·t'ai·t'ai."

''Take away your hands," Tai.yil said."Who wants to pull and pinch with you1You are growing older every day and shouldknow better than that . • • :'

Lin Tai-yii and Chia Pao-yil were sweet­hearts and lovers for years, yet she didnot allow him to take her hand; Yego­rushka Korsunsky and Kitty were mere

LOVE IN CHINA II.

friellds, but he caressed her waist. Howgreat the difference!

Too heavy were our traditional fetterslaid upon the two sexes. Our loverswere forced to throw their whole energyon what we called "heart strength"(Min cA'in). So the golden rule of"elegancy and allusion" for coquetry wasespecially developed in our oountry. Ournovelists repeatedly told their readersthat a seductive smile. was quite enoughfor a girl to expl'888 all that she wantedto say or do, and graoefully .uggestiveactions were always more attractive thanthe warda "I love you" uttered frankly.Whether or not this containa any truthneed not be disc1ll8ed here. I limply wishto point out that this was the attitude ofour love-story writing, which ran con­tinually from ancient times up to thirtyyears ago and represented the mostoriginal form and spirit of what wastypically Chinese.

WAYS ARD JIBAN8 0 .. WOOING

To foreigners it seems a mystery that,as girls were strictly secluded from theoutside in the inner chambers of thefamily, they could have found any oppor­tunity to woo in privacy. This can beeasily answered by citing a few examplesfrom our novels.

In the spring we have a festival calledCh'ing Ming at which nearly all familymembers visit their family graveyards toburn paper offerings before the graves.Spring is the best time for all lovers.And it was this golden moment that theyoung hearts of old China made use ofto meet each other. When a young andhandsome scholar, plucking flowers orpulling willow branches on his way.chanced to meet, as told in the novels,a maiden of great beauty, he would tryto exchange speechless messages by eye­brows and eyes. When the girl departedfrom the graveyard to ride home in asedan chair, she would peep out to seewhether the young man was followingher. H he was falling in love with her,he would follow her for a long distance.Thus the love affair would begin to de-

velop, sometimes favorably, sometimesotherwise.

Moreover, we have a very mysteriousplace, the monastery, which is entirelydifferent from a church. It is a placefor offering sacrifice to a god or goddess;it is also a place for flirting. In it anyone may rent rooms to dwell. And it isusual for scholars or rich men to holdbanquets at famous temples. So natural­ly romance has an opportunity to fly in.H8i-Hsiang-chi (Romance in the WestChamber, translated into German byVinoenz Hundhausen: Da8 WutzimmeY,Peking and Leipzig, 1926), a dramaderived from the novel Hui-c1am-cAi.written by the famous poet YUan Chen ofthe Tang Dynasty, may be taken here asrepresentative of this type. The youngscholar Chang Chiin-jui happened to paya visit to the famous monastery P'u­chiao-ezu, where he was deeply enchantedby Ts'ui Ying-ying's enticing beauty.When he returned to his hotel, he wasannoyed to find that wherever he lookedhe saw Ying-ying's charming face, andthat whatever he heard seemed like hersweet voioe. He could not slcep at nightand found no taste in eating and drinking.Early next morning he went to the templeand took a room there. By chance hemet Ying-ying's handmaid Hung-Niangand told her that he wanted to meet hermistress. As a matter of COUl"8e, sherefused him flatly. After oonsulting amonk, he found out that every nightYing-ying burnt incense in the garden ofthe temple. That very night, in themoonlight, he went to the garden, con­cealing himself behind a rock, and peepedout. As he had expected, she came.He then sang a poem to provoke her :

The night is mild and tender withmoonlight;

182 THE XXtb CENTURY

her small red shoes before the door orher face behind the window-all wereutilized for flirtation. All this is vividlydescribed by our novelists. Such loveaffairs were always full of unusual colorand romance.

LOVE WITH HOBGOBLINS

There is another type of love represent­ed in Chinese novelB which differs fromanything ever contained in Westernwriting-love with beauties who arenothing but disguised hobgoblins. Ac­cording to Chinese tales, ghosts, foxes,dragons, serpents, and Bower spirits could,after hundreds of years of concentration,acquire magio power enabling them totum into fascinating maidens. This pecu­liarity may be traced as early as the

fiction wri t te nin the T'angDynasty (618­906). Down tothe Ching period(1644-1911), thissubject was fullydeveloped. Y i­Yao -Chuan. (ARecord of Faith­ful Hobgoblins)and Liao-Chai­Chih- Y i (StrangeStories from theLiao Studio,translated into

English by Herbert A. Giles, Shang­hai, 1936, 4th edition) were the twomost famous ones of this kind. Asa rule, all these characters imper­sonated by nonhuman beings possessedhundred-per-cent human nature. Some­times they were so elegantly portrayedthat they were even more loyal in loveand more lovely in daily conduct thanreal human beings. Let me cite Y'i- Yao­Chuan as an example.

Once upon a time there were twoserpents, one white and one blue. Bothof them possessed the magic faculty ofbeing able to tum into beautiful girls.At the Ch'ing Ming Festival they methandsome Hsu Hsien, an apprentice of amedicine shop, on the shore of the beauti-

The spring is lonely and melancholywith the shadow of BowerB.

Facing such a brightness of heaven,Why can I not meet the fairy girlB1

Ying-ying was surprised, but notfrightened by his voice, for she was alsofalling in love with him. She softlychanted a poem in reply:

So lonely in my fragrant chamber,I know not how to spend the lovely

spring.How I do sympathize with him who is

sighingI

Chang Chun-ui was enraptured by thisreply and decided to come forward totalk with her; but suddenly the gate ofthe garden was closed, and the two girlsdisappeared. 'Hecould do noth­ing now butmurmur Ying­ying's poem toheaven. Aftermany obstaclesthey met, andfinally they de­parted in a most

brokenhearted Il~~~~~~!;~~~~condition. From . '.'this brief narra­tion one mayobtain a gener~lidea of the formof Chinese courtship.

Old-fashioned Chinese girlB were re­strained in everything; but once theydipped into love' they would defy allmoral codes and brave social censure.As portrayed in nove1B, our girls often,if not always, showed their admirablegallantness to such a degree that evenmen were no match for them. This wasthe reason, why, in their deep seclusion,they could find ways to communicatewith their beloved and means to stimulatethem. Nothing can stop love. Whenlove sows seeds in one's mind, it plantsat the same time the means to promoteand accomplish it. Handkereh,ief, fan,maidservant, younger brother, flying akite, playing the Bute or chin, showing

LOVE IN CHINA 183

luI West Lake at Hangchow. Theygazed at him in a very seductive manner,and Hsil Hsien was at once smitten bytheir amorous beauty. Just at this mo­ment it started to rain heavily. Thetwo girls approached Hail Hsien andasked him to allow them to ride in hishired boat &C1'088 the lake. On the boatthe white serpent told him her name wasPai Shu-Chen and that her maid wascalled Hsiao C'hing. Later on Heft Hsienmarried Pai Shu-Chen and lived happilybeyond his imagination.

Meanwhile, his pretty wife had per­formed many miracles to make himwealthy. But at the Dragon Boat Fes­tival she drank haiung-huang-chiu (a kindof wine made of sulphuric ingredienta)and became so drunk that she could nolonger control herself. She revealed heroriginal form, which frightened Hsil Hsiento death. As soon as Pai Shu-Chen cameto herself again, she rode on a flyingoloud to the K'un-Lung Mountain to stealthe "01'888 of Resurrection.U This wasvery dangerous, because, if ahe were dis­covered by the heavenly 8pirits guardingit, she was certain to be killed by them.But danger could not stem her, and shesucceeded in saving her husband's lifewith that strange grass.

Knowing now that his wife was agoblin, Hsil Hsien went to the temple ofChin-Ban Szu to consult the abbot Fa Haiabout his supematural wife. Fa Haipersuaded him to stay in the monasteryand never to retum to her again. PaiShu-Chen was desperately in love withher husband, and a wound opened in herheart that would never heal unless hecame back to her. She went to themonastery with HsiaoChing to seek him; butthey were defeated byFa Hai after a fiercebattIe. Finally she wasimprisoned in the Thun­der Peak Pagoda onthe shore of the WestLake.

So sad and somber astory is scarcely to befound in any other work

of fiction. And it is not strange thatmany readers shed tears for noble andlovable Madame Pai on reading herunfortunate experiences.

LOVE WITH COURTESANS

Consonant with China's Jeng-ya (cul­tivated and gentle) attitude toward life,the majority of Chinese love stories weretales of love between scholars and courte­sans who could compose poems, handlemusical instrumenta, or sing love dittiesand lyrics from operas. Under the tradi­tional Chinese system of marriage, manya man missed the chance to taste court­ship and romance, 80 enticing to men ofleisure, especially thoee of the richerclass. The courtesan supplied this de­mand. We have two famous novels,Rai Shang Hua Lieh-Chuan (Biographiesof Shanghai Courtesans) and CMu- Wei­Kuei (Nine-Tailed Tortoise), describinghow men had to court girls in singsonghouses for months and spend hundredsor even thousands of dollars before theygained their real or feigned love.

Courteea.ns, as reflected in novels, hadgreat variety of character. Among themwere chaste lovers, talented cheaters,accomplished musicians, lewd harlota, andseduotive singers. They varied in thecolor of their charm: stylish ornament,elegant chat, delicate action, and, aboveall, expert skill in exciting men's deepdesire to flirt. More than that, thecompany of courtesans often inspiredsoholars to create love poems of longing,departure, sadness, and tears. As theidea of chastity was too deeply rootedin the hearts of respeotable Chinesewomen, only courtesans, being much

less restrained due totheir profession, enjoyedfreedom in doing every­thing t\lat might beconsidered romantic.

But during the MingDynasty (1368-1643)no offioial was allowedto frequent brothels. Sowhen he gave a banquethe su~moned youngactors (most of them

1M 'IBE XXth CENTURY

JT*·t·~. I .

. ,

female impersonators) to urge guests todrink (yu chiu). Down to the middleof the Ching Dynasty. young and beauti­ful actors encroached upon the place ofsingsong girls. In 1862 the novel Pin­Hua Poo-Ohim (Annals of Actors inPeking) was published.which dealt ex­clusively with suchlove affairs. Theauthor classified hischaracters into twogroups: the cultivatedand the vulgar. Themost prominent mem­bers of the formergroup were scholarsbom in high officialfamilies. while thelatter was com­poeed of millionaires. merchants. and lowofficials. The difference was that thescholars courted bosom friends. whereasthe others aimed only at libidinous pleas­ure. The enjoyment of sexually unde­filed love. as described in this novel. wasan art depending much on one's moodand personality.

Reading Pin-Hua Poo-Ohim, we cansafely reach the conclusion that theChinese ideal of love is pursuit of senti­mental liberation rather than sensualsatisfaction. All cultivated scholars. savea few. were praised. All vulgar fellowswere scolded. The hero of this novelhad by nature a poetically feelingheart. He approached the actors. andhe was satisfied when they treated himas Lin Tai-yU. in our quotation from PMDrtam 01 t/ae Bed Chambet-. had treatedChia Pao-yil-eometimes with fondness.sometimes with sweetness. butnever with debauchery. Goetheonce told Eckermann that inChina sweethearts and lovershad 80 remarkable a self-controlthat they could pass the nightin one room without physicalcontact. Indeed. this is thevery point so often stressedby our novelists.

However. we must also regard theother side. the well-known novel Ohin­Ping-Mri. which deals with fleehly love.wealth. and power. but not with knowl­edge or the soul. It is an eminentlybeautiful and splendid work of the MingDynasty. deserving one of the highestplaces among Chinese novels. In excel­lent Chinese and, for the most part, inexcellent spirit. it vividly paints a truepicture of individuals and the society ofthat time. Moreover. even in the descrip­tion of physical love it clearly indicates thedifferent personality of each character­never the same, never monotonous.

Nearly all characters of this novelsought gratification of sexual desire. notof love. H there was any love involvedit was for physical beauty. not personality.Hai-Men Ching and P'an Chin-lien bothbelonged to the vulgar class. What theycould do best was to enrapture each otherwith lasciviousness. Loyalty or constancycould certainly not be found between them.

BPILOOUB

As to the attitude in writing lovestories. our old novelists maintained thattheir eftort was to form the minds ofmen to & high degree of virtue. Theypraised what was cultivated; they de­spised what was vulgar; they filled theirworks with the smiles of a grandmotherfor her grandson. with the tears of achaste maiden longing for her departedlover. They valued what had been sub­limated. Of course. all vulgar interestsof mankind were also recorded. but theywere recorded for readers to reflect. notin order to amuse.

That the conception toward love andthe attitude toward love-storywriting as reflected in our oldnovels have been greatlychanged during recent years, wehave little doubt. But we haveas little doubt that, after thelong tradition of thousands ofyears, there will still remainmuch that can only perish withthe Chinese marriage system.