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I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
Ein
führ
ung
indi
eA
stro
nom
ieI
Jörn
Wilm
s
Win
ters
emes
ter
2008
/200
9
Bür
o:D
r.K
arlR
emei
s-S
tern
war
te,B
ambe
rg
Em
Tel.:
(095
1)95
222-
13
http://pulsar.sternwarte.uni-erlangen.de/wilms/teach/intro
Erlangen−Nürnberg
Friedrich−Alexander−Universität
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–1
Intr
oduc
tion
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–2
Pre
limin
arie
s1
Ast
rono
mie
ande
rFA
U
NF
imB
ache
lor:
Geb
rauc
htw
erde
n:
•S
chei
neA
stro
nom
ieIun
dII
•A
stro
nom
isch
esP
rakt
ikum
(Sch
ein)
Ast
rono
mie
/Ast
roph
ysik
imH
aupt
stud
ium
Phy
sik:
häng
tdav
onab
...
PW
B:
10S
WS
wei
terf
ühre
nde
Vor
lesu
ngen
Ast
ro-/
Teilc
henp
hysi
k,da
von
2S
WS
The
orie
nich
tphy
sika
lisch
esW
ahlfa
ch:
wie
NF
imH
aupt
stud
ium
,nur
wen
n
Ast
rono
mie
nich
tim
Vor
dipl
om!
Neb
enfä
chle
r(N
Fim
Hau
ptst
udiu
mfü
rN
icht
phys
iker
):
•A
stro
nom
ieIun
dII
•E
ine
wei
terf
ühre
nde
Vor
lesu
ng(2
SW
S)
•E
inph
ysik
alis
cher
Pra
ktik
umss
chei
n(z
.B.A
stro
nom
isch
esP
rakt
ikum
)
Frü
hstu
dium
,Sen
iore
nstu
dium
:fr
eiw
illig
,
•m
öglic
hsi
ndS
chei
neA
stro
nom
ieIun
dII
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–3
Pre
limin
arie
s2
Ast
rono
mie
imB
A/M
AP
hysi
k,I
NF
imB
ache
lor/
Mas
ter:
Zw
eiM
odul
e(J
e10
EC
TS
):
•N
W-1
(Gru
ndke
nntn
isse
)ka
nnge
wäh
ltw
erde
nim
1./2
.,3.
/4.o
der
5./6
.
Sem
este
r
•N
W-2
(ver
tieft)
kann
u.a.
gew
ählt
wer
den
im4.
/5.
Sem
este
rod
eral
sN
W
imM
aste
rstu
dium
PW
imB
ache
lors
tudi
um:
Mod
ulfü
rP
W-1
,PW
-2,o
der
PW
-3
PW
imM
aste
rstu
dium
:M
odul
für
PW
M-1
oder
PW
M-2
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–6
Pre
limin
arie
s5
Sch
eine
?!?
Idee
:K
umul
ativ
eA
bsch
lüss
ein
den
Neb
enfä
cher
n,ke
ine
mod
ulüb
ergr
eife
nde
Prü
fung
.
=⇒
Impl
izie
rtN
oten
gebu
ng!
=⇒
KLA
US
UR
am27
.Jan
uar
2009
Kla
usur
wird
zuei
nem
beno
tete
nS
chei
nfü
hren
,auf
Wun
sch
sind
beiB
este
hen
der
Kla
usur
auch
unbe
note
teS
chei
nem
öglic
h.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–7
Pre
limin
arie
s6
Übu
ngen
und
Hau
sauf
gabe
n
Um
den
Sto
ffzu
vert
iefe
ngi
btes
frei
will
ige
Übu
ngen
.
Mon
tags
,14:
15–1
5:00
Hör
saal
FB
etre
uung
:A
nne
Lohfi
nk
Wir
wer
den
typi
sche
rwei
seal
lezw
eibi
sdr
eiW
oche
nei
nen
Übu
ngsz
ette
l
aust
eile
n,de
rin
den
Übu
ngen
besp
roch
enw
erde
nw
ird.
Ebe
nso
sind
Vor
schl
äge
und
Frag
enfü
rdi
eÜ
bung
ense
hrer
wün
scht
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–8
Pre
limin
arie
s7
Pra
ktik
um
Pra
ktik
umw
irdan
der
Dr.
Kar
lRem
eis-
Ste
rnw
arte
,Bam
berg
,als
Blo
ckpr
aktik
um
durc
hgef
ührt
wer
den.
Term
ine:
•16
.02.
–27.
02.2
009
•02
.03.
–13.
03.2
009
•14
.09.
–25.
09.2
009
•28
.09.
–09.
10.2
009
=⇒
21P
lätz
epr
oTe
rmin
=⇒
Wir
lass
en84
+x
Per
sone
nzu
(x≥
0).
Ein
trag
ung
heut
e,vo
rläufi
geZ
ulas
sung
erfo
lgti
mLa
ufe
dies
erW
oche
und
wird
näch
ste
Woc
hem
itget
eilt.
Zum
Bes
tehe
nde
sM
odul
ssi
ndfü
ral
leda
sP
rakt
ikum
sow
iedi
ezw
ei
Sch
eine
Ast
rono
mie
Iun
dII
erfo
rder
lich.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–9
Lite
ratu
re1
Text
book
s
KA
RT
UN
NE
N,
KR
ÖG
ER
&O
JA,2
003,
Fun
dam
enta
lAst
rono
my,
Hei
delb
erg:
Spr
inge
r,e
64(s
oftc
over
),50
0pp
.G
ood
gene
ralo
verv
iew
ofas
tron
omy.
Rec
omm
ende
d,es
peci
ally
for
exam
prep
arat
ion.
KU
TN
ER
,200
3,A
stro
nom
y:A
Phy
sica
lPer
spec
tive,
Cam
brid
ge:
Cam
brid
ge
Uni
v.P
ress
,e55
,580
pp.
Mod
ern
phys
ics
base
dte
xtbo
ok,e
asy
tore
ad.
Rec
omm
ende
d.
UN
SÖ
LD
&B
AS
CH
EK
,200
5,D
erne
ueK
osm
os.
Ein
führ
ung
indi
eA
stro
nom
ie
und
Ast
roph
ysik
,Ber
lin:
Spr
inge
r,e
50,5
77pp
.In
term
edia
tele
vel:
Goo
dov
ervi
ewof
stel
lar
astr
onom
y,w
eak
onex
trag
alac
ticas
tron
omy.
Goo
dse
cond
ary
read
ing.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–10
Lite
ratu
re2
Text
book
s
ZE
ILIK
&G
RE
GO
RY
,199
8,In
trod
ucto
ryA
stro
nom
y&
Ast
roph
ysic
s,4t
hed
.,
Tho
mso
nLe
arni
ng,e
68,6
00pp
.In
term
edia
tele
vel,
self
cont
aine
d,bu
tsom
etim
esch
aotic
orde
r.
CA
RR
OL
L&
OS
TL
IE,2
007,
Mod
ern
Ast
roph
ysic
s,R
eadi
ng:
Add
ison
-Wes
ley,
e80
(sof
tcov
er),
1400
pp.
Adv
ance
dle
vel,
expe
cts
good
phys
ics
back
grou
nd.
Rec
omm
ende
dif
you
wan
tto
spec
ializ
ein
astr
onom
y.
DE
PA
TE
R&
LIS
SA
UE
R,2
001,
Pla
neta
ryS
cien
ces,
Cam
brid
ge:
Cam
brid
ge
Uni
vers
ityP
ress
,e93
,544
pp.
Adv
ance
d:T
hete
xtbo
okof
plan
etar
ysc
ienc
e.
Goo
dse
cond
ary
read
ing.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–11
Con
tent
s1
Con
tent
s
14O
ctO
rgan
isat
ion,
Intr
oduc
tion,
His
tory
21O
ctP
lane
ts:
Ove
rvie
w,D
ynam
ics
28O
ctP
lane
ts:
Inne
rP
lane
ts
04N
ovP
lane
ts:
Out
erP
lane
ts
11N
ovP
lane
ts:
Tran
snep
tuni
ans,
Ast
eroi
ds,C
omet
s,M
eteo
rites
18N
ovM
easu
rem
entM
etho
ds:
Tele
scop
es,C
oord
inat
es
25N
ovS
tars
:D
ista
nces
,Lum
inos
ity,H
RD
02D
ecS
tars
:B
inar
ies,
mas
ses
&ra
dii
09D
ecE
xtra
sola
rpl
anet
s
16D
ecS
tars
:F
orm
atio
n,S
truc
ture
23Ja
nS
tars
:T
heS
un
13Ja
nS
tars
:E
volu
tion
20Ja
nS
tars
:E
volu
tion,
cont
inue
d
27Ja
nE
xam
!
03F
ebS
uper
nova
e
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–1
His
tory
ofA
stro
nom
y
Sto
nehe
nge:
2500
BC
;sol
arob
serv
ator
y?
Dis
kof
Neb
ra:
1600
BC
first
repr
oduc
tion
ofth
eni
ghts
ky,c
onst
ella
tion
ofM
oon
and
Ple
iade
s
mea
sure
sso
lstic
esan
deq
uino
xes
=⇒
cale
ndar
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–4
His
tory
1
His
tory
Toge
ther
with
theo
logy
,ast
rono
my
one
ofth
eol
dest
prof
essi
ons
inth
e
wor
ld.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–4
His
tory
2
His
tory
Toge
ther
with
theo
logy
,ast
rono
my
one
ofth
eol
dest
prof
essi
ons
inth
e
wor
ld.
So
wha
t?
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–4
His
tory
3
His
tory
Toge
ther
with
theo
logy
,ast
rono
my
one
ofth
eol
dest
prof
essi
ons
inth
e
wor
ld.
So
wha
t?
Ast
rono
mic
alno
men
clat
ure
isst
illst
rong
lyin
fluen
ced
byth
istr
aditi
on.
=⇒
appr
ecia
tion
ofhi
stor
yof
astr
onom
yis
requ
ired
for
unde
rsta
ndin
gev
enof
toda
y’s
astr
onom
y.M
any
term
sus
edar
eba
sed
onth
ishi
stor
y,e.
g.
mag
nitu
des
byth
egr
eek
astr
onom
erH
ippa
rcos
(∼15
0B
C)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–5
His
tory
1
Ear
lyC
osm
olog
y
Com
posi
teof
imag
esof
Mar
ssp
aced
∼a
wee
kap
art–
from
late
July
2005
(bot
tom
right
)th
roug
hF
ebru
ary
2006
(top
left)
.
Exp
lain
obse
rvat
ions
:
•da
ilym
otio
nsof
Sun
,
Moo
n,pl
anet
s&
star
s
from
Eto
W
•m
uch
slow
erm
otio
nof
Sun
&M
oon
with
re-
spec
tto
star
s
•oc
casi
onal
retr
ogra
de
mot
ions
ofpl
anet
s(E
to
W)
•so
lar
and
luna
rec
lipse
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–6
His
tory
1
Bab
ylon
Bab
ylon
ian
astr
onom
y:E
arlie
stas
tron
omy
(flou
rish∼
700
BC
)w
ithin
fluen
ceon
us:
=⇒
sexa
gesi
mal
syst
em[3
60:6
0:60
],24
h
day,
12×
30d
year
,...
=⇒
Obs
erva
tions
ofsu
nan
dm
oon
=⇒
stel
lar
cons
tella
tions
,12
sign
sof
zodi
ac
=⇒
book
keep
ing
onso
lar
and
luna
r
eclip
ses,
Sar
oscy
cle:
18yr
11d
=⇒
desc
riptio
nof
plan
etm
ovem
ent
=⇒
cata
logi
ngst
ella
rpo
sitio
ns
Imag
e:M
ul.A
pin
cune
iform
tabl
et(B
ritis
hM
useu
m,
BM
8637
8,8
cmhi
gh),
desc
ribes
risin
gan
dse
tting
ofco
n-st
ella
tions
thro
ugh
the
baby
loni
anca
lend
ar.
Sum
mar
izes
astr
onom
ical
know
ledg
eas
ofbe
fore
∼69
0B
C.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–7
His
tory
2
Gre
ek,I
Atla
sFa
rnes
e,2c
A.D
.,M
useo
Arc
heol
ogic
oN
azio
nale
,Nap
oli
Gre
ekA
stro
nom
ers:
“Mat
hem
atic
ians
”
deve
lopm
ento
fthe
geoc
entr
icw
orld
mod
el
•T
hale
s(6
24–5
47B
C):
Ear
this
flat,
surr
ound
edby
wat
er.
•P
ytha
gora
s(c
a.57
0–51
0B
C):
“Eve
ryth
ing
isnu
m-
ber”
Aha
rmon
icun
iver
se(m
usic
)re
quire
sor
bita
l
mot
ions
ince
rtai
nra
tios
ofin
tege
rnu
mbe
rs
(see
Kep
ler:
Har
mon
ices
mun
di)
•P
lato
(427
–347
BC
):th
eci
rcle
isth
epe
rfec
tge-
omet
ricfo
rm,u
nifo
rmci
rcul
arm
otio
nis
eter
nal
=⇒
“the
hex
ofci
rcle
s”
•E
udox
us(4
08–3
55B
C):
Geo
cent
ric,p
lane
tsaf
fixed
toco
ncen
tric
crys
talli
nesp
here
s.F
irstr
ealm
odel
for
plan
etar
ym
otio
n!
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–8
His
tory
3
Gre
ek,I
I
Aris
totle
(384
–322
BC
,de
cael
o):
Re-
finem
ento
fEu-
doxu
sm
odel
:ad
d
sphe
res
toen
sure
smoo
thm
otio
n
=⇒
Uni
vers
efil
led
with
crys
talli
ne
sphe
res
(nat
ure
abho
rsva
cuum
).
=⇒
Cen
tral
philo
soph
yun
til∼
1450
AD
!
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–9
His
tory
4
Gre
ek,I
II
Hip
parc
hus
(??
–∼
127
BC
):F
irstG
reek
obse
rver
:
•S
tar
cata
log:
850
star
s
•M
agni
tude
sof
star
s:0m
...6
m
•P
aral
lax
ofth
em
oon
•Ta
ble
ofch
ords
(ear
lytr
igon
omet
ry)
•D
isco
very
ofpr
eces
sion
(shi
ftof
the
vern
aleq
uino
x)by
com
paris
onw
ith
Bab
ylon
ian
star
cata
log
•S
easo
nsha
veun
equa
llen
gth
•us
edge
ocen
tric
wor
ldm
odel
ofA
risto
tele
tom
ake
pred
ictio
ns(E
picy
cle)
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–10
His
tory
5
Gre
ek,I
V
(Ave
ni,1
993,
p.58
)
Pto
lem
aeus
(∼14
0AD
):S
ynta
xis
(aka
Alm
ages
t):
Refi
nem
ento
fAris
tote
lian
theo
ryin
tom
odel
usea
ble
for
com
pu-
tatio
ns
=⇒
Pto
lem
aic
Sys
tem
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–11
His
tory
6
Gre
ek,V
Dev
elop
men
toft
hehe
lioce
ntric
wor
ldm
odel
:A
rista
rchu
s(3
10–2
30B
C)
dete
rmin
atio
nof
the
radi
usof
the
Sun
1sta
ndla
stqu
arte
rof
moo
n:
obse
rved
∠(M
oon,
Sun
)=
1/4
circ
le−
1/30
×1/
4ci
rcle
=87
◦
=⇒
dist
ance
s:D
(Sun
−E
arth
)=
19×
D(M
oon−
Ear
th)
inre
ality
:40
0tim
es
Sin
cean
gula
rdi
amet
ers
ofsu
nan
dm
oon
are
alm
oste
qual
:
R(S
un)
=19
×R
(Moo
n)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–12
His
tory
7
Gre
ek,V
I
Dev
elop
men
toft
hehe
lioce
ntric
wor
ldm
odel
:
Aris
tarc
hus
(310
–230
BC
)ra
dius
ofth
esu
n
luna
rec
lipse
s:
Moo
nfit
sin
toea
rth
shad
owtw
ice
(infa
ct:
3.68
times
)
=⇒
Rad
ii:R
(sun
)=9.
5×R
(ear
th)
=⇒
com
mon
sens
e:sm
alle
rbo
dy
mov
esar
ound
the
larg
eron
e!
Hel
ioce
ntric
wor
ldm
odel
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–13
His
tory
8
Gre
ek,V
II
Era
tost
hene
s(2
76–1
95B
C):
mea
sure
men
toft
heea
rth’
s
radi
us
Idea
:m
easu
recu
lmin
atio
n
ofth
esu
nat
two
plac
esof
know
ndi
stan
ce(N
toS
)on
the
sam
eda
y.
Sye
ne:
sun
atze
nith
,Ale
xand
ria:
7.2◦
away
from
Zen
ith
=⇒
Dis
tanc
ebe
twee
nA
lexa
ndria
and
Sye
ne:d/(
2πR
)=
7.2/
360
Mea
sure
d:50
00S
tade
s
Som
ehi
stor
ians
belie
veth
atth
isdi
stan
ceco
rres
pond
sto∼
820
km,s
oif
true
then
the
radi
usof
the
Ear
thw
ould
have
been
dete
rmin
edto
6264
km
infa
ct:
6378
km;r
epea
ted:
1671
:P
aris
-Am
iens
(J.P
icar
d)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–14
His
tory
9
Gre
ek,V
III
The
dist
ance
toth
eM
oon
and
the
Sun
:
angu
lar
diam
eter
ofth
em
oon
equa
lsw
idth
offin
ger
as
seen
from
1m
away
=⇒
Rm
oon/d
moo
n=
1/20
0
Luna
roc
culta
tions
:R
moo
n=
1/2R
eart
h
=⇒
Rea
rth/d
moo
n=
1/10
0
dm
oon
=10
0×
Rea
rth
=62
6400
km
=⇒
dist
ance
toth
esu
n: dsu
n=
19×
Rm
oon
=11
.9M
iokm
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–15
His
tory
10
Ren
aiss
ance
,I
Reg
iom
onta
nus:
Joha
nnes
Mül
ler
from
Kön
igsb
erg
(Fra
ncon
ia)
(143
6–14
76):
•S
tudi
esat
Leip
zig
(144
7)an
dV
ienn
a
(145
0):
Mat
hsan
dA
stro
nom
y
•E
pyto
ma
Joan
isde
mon
tere
gio
inal
-
mag
esti
ptol
emei
(146
1–14
63):
tran
s-
latio
nto
latin
with
muc
him
prov
edm
aths
•D
etr
iang
ulis
omni
mod
is(1
462–
1464
):
foun
datio
nof
mod
ern
trig
onom
etry
•E
phem
erid
esas
tron
omic
aeab
anno
1475
–150
6:
mos
tacc
urat
e
ephe
mer
ides
=⇒
Nav
igat
ion:
Col
umbu
s&
Vas
coda
Gam
a
•F
ound
erof
Nur
embe
rgO
bser
vato
ry
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–16
His
tory
11
Ren
aiss
ance
,II
Nic
olau
sC
oper
nicu
s(1
473–
1543
):
Ear
thce
ntre
dP
tole
mai
csy
stem
is
too
com
plic
ated
,aS
un-c
entr
edsy
s-
tem
ism
ore
eleg
ant.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–16
His
tory
12
Ren
aiss
ance
,III
(Gin
geric
h,19
93,p
.165
)
Nic
olau
sC
oper
nicu
s(1
473–
1543
):
Ear
thce
ntre
dP
tole
mai
csy
stem
is
too
com
plic
ated
,aS
un-c
entr
edsy
s-
tem
ism
ore
eleg
ant:
De
revo
lutio
nibu
sor
bium
coel
estiu
m:
“In
noot
her
way
do
we
perc
eive
the
clea
rha
rmon
ious
linka
gebe
twee
nth
em
otio
nsof
the
plan
ets
and
the
size
sof
thei
ror
bs.”
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–16
His
tory
13
Ren
aiss
ance
,IV
(Gin
geric
h,19
93,p
.165
)
Nic
olau
sC
oper
nicu
s(1
473–
1543
):
Ear
thce
ntre
dP
tole
mai
csy
stem
is
too
com
plic
ated
,aS
un-c
entr
edsy
s-
tem
ism
ore
eleg
ant:
De
revo
lutio
nibu
sor
bium
coel
estiu
m:
“In
noot
her
way
do
we
perc
eive
the
clea
rha
rmon
ious
linka
gebe
twee
nth
em
otio
nsof
the
plan
ets
and
the
size
sof
thei
ror
bs.”
Cop
erni
can
prin
cipl
e:T
heE
arth
isno
tatt
hece
nter
ofth
e
univ
erse
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–17
His
tory
14
Ren
aiss
ance
,V
Tych
oB
rahe
(154
6–16
01):
Vis
ualp
lane
tary
posi
tions
ofhi
ghes
tpre
cisi
onre
veal
flaw
sin
Pto
lem
aic
posi
tions
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–18
His
tory
15
Ren
aiss
ance
,VI
Ret
rogr
ade
mot
ion:
he-
lioce
ntric
vsge
ocen
tric
mod
el
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–19
His
tory
16
Ren
aiss
ance
,VII
Joha
nnes
Kep
ler
(157
1–16
30):
Pla
n-
ets
orbi
ton
ellip
ses
arou
ndS
un,n
ot
onci
rcle
s,la
ws
ofm
otio
n.
Gal
ileo
Gal
ilei(
1564
–164
2):
Tele
-
scop
icob
serv
atio
ns,d
isco
very
of
four
moo
nsof
Jupi
ter
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–20
His
tory
17
Ren
aiss
ance
,VIII
Moo
nsm
ove
arou
ndJu
pite
r
(=⇒
sim
ilar
tohe
lioce
ntric
mod
el!)
...
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–21
His
tory
18
Ren
aiss
ance
,IX
Dis
cove
ryof
phas
esof
Ven
us(I
lSag
giat
ore,
1623
)
Obs
erve
dph
ases
and
angu
lar
size
chan
ges
ofV
enus
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–23
His
tory
20
Ren
aiss
ance
,XI
The
obse
rved
phas
ech
ange
sof
Ven
usca
nbe
expl
aine
don
lyby
the
helio
cent
ric
wor
ldm
odel
,not
byth
eP
tole
mai
cge
ocen
tric
syst
em,n
orby
Tych
o’s!
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–24
His
tory
21
New
ton
(New
ton,
1730
)
Isaa
cN
ewto
n(1
642–
1727
):N
ewto
n’s
law
s,ph
ysic
alca
use
for
shap
eof
orbi
ts
isgr
avita
tion
(De
Phi
loso
phia
eN
atur
alis
Prin
cipi
a
Mat
hem
atic
a,16
87).
=⇒
Beg
inof
mod
ern
phys
ics
base
d
astr
onom
y.
2–24
Ave
ni,A
.F.,
1993
,A
ncie
ntA
stro
nom
ers,
(Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.:S
mith
soni
anB
ooks
)
Gin
geric
h,O
.,19
93,
The
Eye
ofH
eave
n–
Pto
lem
y,C
oper
nicu
s,K
eple
r,(N
ewYo
rk:
Am
eric
anIn
stitu
teof
Phy
sics
)
New
ton,
I.,17
30,
Opt
icks
,Vol
.4th
,(L
ondo
n:W
illia
mIn
nys)
,re
prin
t:D
over
Pub
licat
ions
,195
2
