IWMI-TATA POLICY PAPER...This policy paper highlights several inﬁrmies with the current strategy as well as implementaon roadmap for PMKSY. 1. The promise of Har Khet Ko Pani had

HAR KHET KO PANI(Water to Every Farm)

Rethinking Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY)

Tushaar Shah

Shilp Verma

Neha Durga

Abhishek Rajan

Alankrita Goswami

Alka Palrecha

IWMI-TATA

POLICY PAPERJUNE 2016

*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

Contents

Execu�ve Summary 1

1. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana 5

2. Type I and Type II Irriga�on 7

3. The Geography of Irriga�on Depriva�on in India 10

3.1 The most irriga�on deprived districts in India 10

3.2 Irriga�on depriva�on of India's Adivasi farmers 12

4. Water Resources of 'Irriga�on-deprived' Geography 13

5. Accelerated Irriga�on Benefits in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh post-2000 15

6. New Opportuni�es for Type II Irriga�on: The Promise of the Solar Pump 21

7. New Opportuni�es for Type II Irriga�on: Peri-urban Wastewater Irriga�on 23

7.1 Addressing public health and soil quality concerns 24

7.2 Opportuni�es for PMKSY 24

7.3 Agenda for Ac�on 25

8. PMKSY: Prac�cal Ways Forward 27

8.1 Reality of Indian Irriga�on 27

8.2 Objec�ves PMKSY should pursue and their Contextual Fit 28

8.3 PMKSY Interven�ons 29

8.4 PMKSY: Prac�cal Ways Forward 31

8.5 PMKSY: Implementa�on, Monitoring and Evalua�on 32

References 33

ANNEXURE A1: Clustering of Districts 34

Cluster #01: Most Deprived, Groundwater Surplus Districts (112) 35

Cluster #02: Groundwater Surplus; High Pump Density; Type II Irriga�on Constrained by High Energy Cost (36) 35

Cluster #03: Groundwater Surplus; High Pump Density; Type II Irriga�on Constrained by Inadequate Electricity Supply (24) 36

Cluster #04: Groundwater Deficit Alluvial Districts (103) 36

Cluster #05: Groundwater Deficit hard-rock Districts (27) 37

Cluster #06: Districts with Dense MMM Network (114) 37

Cluster #07: Districts with High Density of Irriga�on Tanks and WHS (161) 38

Cluster #08: Districts with Class I and II Towns 38

Cluster #09: Hill Districts in Eastern and Western Himalayas (100) 39

Cluster #10: Districts with High Irriga�on Incidence and High Produc�vity (54) 39

Cluster #11: Districts with High Irriga�on Incidence but Low Produc�vity (41) 40

Cluster #12: Urban and UT Districts (25) 40

ANNEXURE A2: District-wise Database 42

Execu�ve Summary

Har Khet Ko Pani?

In its manifesto for 2014 parliamentary elec�ons, Bhara�ya Janata Party gave pride of place to universalizing

irriga�on access by including Har Hath Ko Kam, Har Khet Ko Pani as one of its commitments. A�er the NDA

government came to power, this commitment took the form of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana with an alloca�on

of ₹ 50,000 crore over 2015-2020 period with an addi�onal ₹ 20,000 crore placed at the disposal of NABARD. As

currently designed, PMKSY has four components: Accelerated Irriga�on Benefits Program (₹ 11,060 crore), 'per drop,

more crop' component (₹ 16,300 crore) to support micro-irriga�on, watershed program (₹ 13,590 crore) and a new

component called Har Khet Ko Pani (₹ 9,050 crore) to construct one water harves�ng structure per village by 2020.

The implementa�on of PMKSY was to be kicked off with the prepara�on of District Irriga�on Plans (DIPs) by state

governments using a format provided by Government of India. Some 240 district plans are apparently ready although

only Chha�sgarh and Nagaland have placed their DIPs in public domain.

Is PMKSY on the right path? Does it have the poten�al to deliver Har Khet Ko Pani? Does it reflect the current

irriga�on reality of India? Is there a be�er way to design and implement PMKSY to target effort and resources where

it ma�ers most? This IWMI-Tata Policy Paper offers an early analysis to help implement a be�er PMKSY with greater

poten�al for socio-economic and livelihood impacts.

Infirmi�es in current design

This policy paper highlights several infirmi�es with the current strategy as well as implementa�on roadmap for

PMKSY.

1. The promise of Har Khet Ko Pani had invoked expecta�ons about bold new irriga�on thinking; but PMKSY's

current avtar is a hotchpotch of pre-exis�ng schemes such as AIBP and micro-irriga�on subsidies with an

indifferent track record. The only new component, Har Khet Ko Pani, is neither clear in objec�ves nor is

adequately funded.

2. As BJP chief ministers of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, Prime Minister Modi and Shivraj Singh Chauhan had

created veritable irriga�on miracles in their states with their irrigated area as well as agricultural GDP growing at

double-digit rates post-2000. The expecta�on was that PMKSY will replicate these sterling achievements on the

na�onal scale by learning from irriga�on strategies these states followed; in its current design, PMKSY betrays

no such learning.

3. PMKSY also overlooks that especially since 1990: [a] the gap between Irriga�on Poten�al Created (IPC) and

Irriga�on Poten�al U�lised (IPU) under government-managed Major, Medium and Minor Irriga�on Projects

(MMMIPs), the so-called Type I irriga�on, steadily increased, resul�ng in li�le or no benefits from public

irriga�on investments to Indian agriculture; [b] that the bulk of the 40 million hectares (mha) of new irriga�on has

come from wells/tubewells and private li� irriga�on (Type II irriga�on); [c] that farmers prefer Type II irriga�on

because it can be created quickly, cost-effec�vely, by private investment and offers year-round on-farm water

control; [d] government ac�on can sustain Type II irriga�on importantly by inves�ng in groundwater recharge and

by improving the Management, Opera�on and Maintenance (MO&M) of public and community structures such

as watersheds, irriga�on tanks, canals — all of which sustain Type II irriga�on.

4. The irriga�on strategies of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh were built on this reality. Under Modi, Gujarat targeted

half a million electricity connec�ons for tubewells to SC/ST farmers; gave a fillip to irriga�on by improving the

quality of farm power supply; invested in groundwater recharge and began desil�ng 5,000 reservoirs/tanks every

year; increased area under micro-irriga�on from less than 50,000 ha in 2002 to 13 lakh ha in 2015, and began

HAR KHET KO PANIRethinking Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY)

1

Figure ES.1: Percentage Adivasi holdings and access to Type II irriga�on in 112 districts

Figure ES.2: Poten�al for 10,000 m³/year wells (in lakhs) from available surplus groundwater resources


2

Overexploited (more than 100% GWD)

Cri�cal (90-100% GWD)

Semi-cri�cal (70-90% GWD)

Safe (Less than 70% GWD)

Poten�al number of wells (in lakhs) per district#

Less than 10%

10 - 30%

30 - 50%

More than 50%

Percentage of holdings having access to Type II Irriga�on

ST Holdings (%) and Access to Type II Irriga�on

#

laying buried pipelines to take Narmada water close to farms. Under Chauhan, similarly, Madhya Pradesh began

issuing a million temporary winter season electricity connec�ons for wheat irriga�on, subsidized farm ponds,

revived 4,000 defunct minor irriga�on projects and introduced major reforms in canal irriga�on management.

Both the states implemented a broad-based mul�-pronged irriga�on development strategy that maximized farm

holdings under Type II irriga�on.

5. The 30-odd DIPs available on the internet show no such urgency to provide year-round on-farm water control to

farm holdings as Gujarat and MP strove for. DIPs are variable in quality; most are comprehensive, long term

water resource plans rather than plans for ensuring Har Khet Ko Pani with urgency. They vary also in ambi�on

level; the DIP for Raipur in Chha�sgarh demands only ₹ 352 crore; Bargarh's indent is for ₹ 2,800 crore; and

Rajnandgaon in Chhat�sgarh wants ₹ 4,900 crore. If we go by DIPs, Chha�sgarh alone requires over ₹ 45,000

crore over 2015-2020 period for PMKSY, with li�le le� for other states from the total alloca�on of ₹ 50,000

crore.

Recommended Strategy

1. Instead of spreading resources thin, PMKSY should focus on the unirrigated half of India's agrarian landscape.

Leave alone ensuring Har Khet Ko Pani, the current design of PMKSY will add no more than 5 mha of new assured

irriga�on. The 23 priority AIBP projects bypass most irriga�on-deprived districts of the country. Micro-irriga�on

subsidies will go only to geographies that already have Type II irriga�on. Watershed programs might benefit the

deprived geography; but past experience shows that the watershed benefit that farmers value most is in

improved groundwater recharge; in districts with few irriga�on wells, watershed programs will stabilize kharif

crop but offer no irriga�on for rabi and summer crops. PMKSY interven�ons must be sequen�al: first expand

access to affordable Type II irriga�on from wells, pumps and pipes; then promote micro-irriga�on; and support

this irriga�on economy by inves�ng in watershed treatment, groundwater recharge, and conjunc�ve

management of groundwater and surface water from tanks and canals.

2. Within the unirrigated half, PMKSY should priori�se Irriga�on Deprived Districts. In 170 best irrigated districts of

India, 70 per cent or more of farm holdings have Type II irriga�on access from one source or the other. Those

without a cap�ve source here benefit from vibrant decentralised markets for irriga�on service. These have to be

contrasted with 112 districts of the country where less than 30 per cent of farm holdings have access to

irriga�on. Here, irriga�on service markets are primi�ve or non-existent; and not having cap�ve irriga�on source

condemns a farmer to vagaries of rainfed farming. Before all else, PMKSY should focus on these districts and

increase the propor�on of holdings with cap�ve source of Type II irriga�on.

3. Even within these districts, PMKSY should proac�vely target Adivasi farm holdings which are more irriga�on-

deprived than the rest. As Figure ES.1 shows, even within irriga�on deprived districts, o�en less than 10 per cent

of Adivasi farms have irriga�on compared to the district average of up to 30 per cent.

4. The quickest and most cost-effec�ve way of providing Type II irriga�on to these holdings is by helping them

aquire a well/borewell and a pump with 500 meters of distribu�on pipe. Since most of these districts have poor

electricity grid development, a major challenge is of providing affordable energy. PMKSY should design a loan-

subsidy scheme to enable Adivasi farmers to own a dug well, a 3.5-5 kWp solar pump and 500 meters of flexible

distribu�on pipe. Each such system can be purchased for ₹ 4.5-5 lakh and can provide high quality supplemental

irriga�on to a gross area of 3-5 hectares.

5. All 105 out of the 112 irriga�on deprived districts are cleared by the Central Groundwater Board as 'safe' (<70%

development) for groundwater development with more than half of the es�mated groundwater available for

further development. As Figure ES.2 shows, these 112 districts have enough unu�lised groundwater to sustain


3

35.7 million new irriga�on wells with an average annual water output of 10,000 m without any threat of over-

exploi�ng the aquifers. With watershed programs, tank desilta�on, and Managed Aquifer Recharge, this poten�al

can be further enhanced. PMKSY should aim at 1-1.5 million solarized irriga�on wells in target 112 districts by

2020. These will add 5-7.5 mha of Type II irriga�on in the country's most 'irriga�on deprived' districts.

6. India's towns and ci�es release some 15 BCM of wastewater per year. Because wastewater offers year-round,

on-farm water control and high nutrient content, towns have the poten�al to become peri-urban irriga�on

systems par excellence. India's wastewater irriga�on economy is already booming, but by default, rather than by

design. PMKSY should pilot a range of cost-effec�ve treatment technologies for wastewater to facilitate its safe

use in irriga�on.

7. There is a need to rethink the role of AIBP. During the past three five-year plan periods, our investments in

government irriga�on projects are largely funded by state governments with the central contribu�on being 10-

15 per cent, mostly under AIBP. However, because states invest li�le in proper management and maintenance,

these systems are stuck in a 'build-neglect-rebuild' syndrome. Instead of supplemen�ng state investments in

construc�ng new systems, AIBP should focus on incen�vising and suppor�ng state governments in improving

the management and maintenance of Major, Medium and Minor irriga�on systems to quickly close the gap

between IPC and IPU. A proposal to catalyse this through the Na�onal Irriga�on Management Fund (NIMF)

already exists in the XII five-year plan.

8. With diverse geography, hydrogeology and socio-economic condi�ons, different parts of the country face

different irriga�on-water challenges and therefore require differen�ated program strategies. Annexure A.1

proposes and explains a clustering of districts along various parameters for be�er planning and targe�ng of

PMKSY interven�ons (see Table A.1).

9. Table 9 in sec�on 8.3 of this paper outlines a broad-based, mul�-pronged irriga�on strategy with a set of 15

interven�ons that PMKSY should help India implement in order to truly scale out BJP governments' irriga�on

success in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. Table 10 in sec�on 8.4 tries to fit the proposed interven�ons to their

unique irriga�on-water reali�es. It iden�fies which of the interven�ons are most cri�cal for each district cluster.

Ensuring Har Khet Ko Pani in India is hard to achieve in a long �me; but if we have any chance of reaching that

goal, we need to rethink the current strategy of PMKSY as outlined in this policy paper.

10. Finally, the implementa�on of PMKSY must be supported through independent, third-party reviews. Credible

civil society organiza�ons, philanthropic trusts, NGOs and CSRs can play a crucial role in this. Especially in the

112 'most irriga�on deprived' districts, the Tata Trusts have a strong presence and an elaborate network of field

partners. PMKSY can draw lessons from their field experience, synergize investments to build on their work, and

also use the network to conduct periodic, transparent reviews of program implementa�on.


4

1. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana

In the 2014 run up to Parliamentary elec�ons, the BJP manifesto gave pride of place to irriga�on development. 'Har

Haath Ko Kaam, Har Khet Ko Paani'¹ was the declared credo of the Party's agrarian strategy. Given that nearly half of

India's farm holdings are totally rainfed, this is an ambi�ous goal indeed, and consonant with the government's

declared goal of doubling farmers' incomes in five years. Speedy execu�on of the river linking project, at least one

new water conserva�on structure per village, speedy comple�on of irriga�on projects and massive expansion of

micro-irriga�on systems to achieve 'more crop per drop' were advanced as the instruments to achieve the vision.

A poli�cal manifesto is not expected to detail opera�onal strategy. However, upon assuming power, the new

Government announced Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY) and in 2016-17 Union Budget, the Finance

Minister provided a more detailed explana�on of how the NDA government plans to use PMKSY to ensure “Har Khet

Ko Pani”. Table 1 outlines the overall profile of the PMKSY and its components. The total outlay proposed is 50,000 ₹

crore over 2015-2020, spread over four key components. Components 1, 3 and 4 are pre-exis�ng programs and

receive 80 per cent of the outlay. The only new components is that of crea�ng a water harves�ng structure in every

village – Har Khet Ko Pani – but it is allocated less than 20 per cent of the total resources.

Table 1: Profile and components of PMKSY

In overall terms, PMKSY total outlay compares reasonably well with X Plan central sector outlay of 9,661 crore and ₹

XI Plan outlay of 24,759 crore (at 2006-07 prices)². But it is less than total central alloca�on (at current prices) of ₹

₹ ₹ 66,530 crore to PMKSY type programs in the XII Five Year Plan that included 42,171 crore for Major, Medium,

and Minor Irriga�on Projects (MMMIP), 4,600 crore for Na�onal Irriga�on Management Fund (NIMF), 5,000 crore ₹ ₹

for revival of tradi�onal water bodies and 15,359 crores of central sector alloca�on for watershed development.₹

For a program that aims to ensure Har Khet Ko Pani, funding of PMKSY by itself has less significance than the

underlying thinking and strategy. When the object of irriga�on development is achieving na�onal food security, it is

important to concentrate resources on districts with highest poten�al for agricultural produc�on. This was done

under Intensive Agricultural Development Program (IADP) during the 1960s that ushered in our Green Revolu�on

beginning in north-western parts. When the object of irriga�on planning is to fully develop available water resources

to the benefit of the na�on, it is natural that energy and resources are invested in geographies which have water

resource poten�al for large dams and canal systems. This has been the mandate of Central Water Commission and

Na�onal Water Development Agency in planning large mul�-purpose irriga�on and hydro-power projects.

¹h�p://www.bjp.org/index.php?op�on=com_content&view=ar�cle&id=4412&ca�d=68:press-releases&Itemid=494 ²h�p://planningcommission.gov.in/plans/planrel/12thplan/pdf/12fyp_vol1.pdf table 3.15; but these numbers are at 2006-07 prices.

PMKSYComponents

Ministry / Department

Physical Target(in lakh ha)

Indica�ve Outlay(in ₹ crores)

2015-20 2015-16 2015-20 2015-16

1. AIBP

MoWR, RD&GR

7.5 1.2 11,060 1,000

2. Har Khet Ko Pani 21.0 2.8 9,050 1,000

3. Per Drop, More CropDept. of Agriculture and

Coopera�on100.0 5.0 16,300 1,800

4. Watershed development Dept. of Land Resources 11.5 4.4 13,590 1,500

TOTAL - - - 50,000 5,300


5

Today, however, na�onal food security is not a burning issue; India is emerging as a farm expor�ng power. The

country s�ll has a great deal of hunger but that is arguably not due to lack of food produc�on. Similarly, since 1830,

we have kept inves�ng large sums in developing our surface water resources by construc�ng MMMIP at appropriate

sites. Our challenge today is that despite all these investments, nearly half of our farm holdings are deprived of any

irriga�on source, and are therefore vulnerable to low produc�vity and drought risks. When the object of irriga�on is

stabilizing and improving agrarian livelihoods by ensuring Har Khet Ko Pani, it makes sense to focus energy and

resources on geographies and social classes which remain most 'irriga�on deprived'. PMKSY should then be centrally

about addressing and overcoming 'irriga�on depriva�on' in India's smallholder agrarian economy.


6

2. Type I and Type II Irriga�on

Over the past 50 years, Indian agriculture has witnessed two dis�nct pa�erns in irriga�on development; these can be

called Type I and Type II irriga�on. Type I irriga�on is typically based on government constructed, owned, and

operated structures as MMMIP. In addi�on, Type I irriga�on also includes flow irriga�on from 600,000 tradi�onal

irriga�on tanks, numerous hill irriga�on systems and kuhls. These are typically supply-driven and score low on year-

round, on-farm water control to the farmer. Type II irriga�on, in contrast, is demand-driven, created through private

investment, commands much smaller area per structure, is privately owned and managed but offers the farmer high

level of year-round, on-farm water control. Some key differences between Type I and Type II irriga�on are highlighted

in Table 2.

Table 2: Key differences between Type I and Type II irriga�on

Not only India, but all of South Asia and many other parts of the world, have witnessed explosive growth in Type II

irriga�on during recent decades. It has grown en�rely in response to demand-pull from farmers, but is made possible

by availability of affordable rigs and drilling equipment, pumps, pipes. Governments at centre and in states have

supported Type II irriga�on crea�on not under its irriga�on programs but under agricultural and rural development

programs. All evidence available shows that especially since 1990, over 95 per cent of new irrigated farm holdings

have been delivered through Type II Irriga�on from privately owned groundwater wells or li� irriga�on schemes

powered by electricity or diesel (see Figure 1).

Ini�ally, groundwater based Type II irriga�on emerged in command areas of MMMIP and tanks to recycle and benefit

from canal and tank irriga�on recharge; but soon, the tail began to wag the dog as farmer preference for Type II

irriga�on soared. In areas outside canal and tank commands, watershed development programs a�racted

par�cipa�on because they offered work opportuni�es and recharged wells. Gradually, check dams, percola�on ponds

and other such structures began to be constructed to help sustain groundwater-based Type II irriga�on. The role of

Type I public and community irriga�on schemes has changed increasingly to support Type II irriga�on.

The year-round, on-demand water control offered by Type II irriga�on makes small farms far more produc�ve and

resilient compared to Type I irriga�on. Type II irriga�on is mostly dependent on groundwater wells; but there is also

growing spread of li� irriga�on and piped delivery of water on many MMMIP as well as rivers and streams. Table 3

reports results of a survey undertaken in the command of Sardar Sarovar project in Gujarat and compares farmers

Type I Irriga�on Type II Irriga�on

Public / CPR Private / Group / Market

Single system may service 20 – 1,500,000 Ha Typically serves 1 – 20 ha

Head – Tail inequity endemic Head – Tail inequity rare

Level of irriga�on service �ed to effec�veness of irriga�on bureaucracy

Immune to bureaucra�c lethargy, but affected by fuel prices or anarchy in electricity distribu�on

Surface Ground / Surface / Surface Flow

Gravity flow in open channels Piped water delivery with mechanical or kine�c energy

Unsuited for micro irriga�on without pressure Ready for micro irriga�on

On-farm water deliveries 6-12 �mes /year On-farm water deliveries, at-will, year-round

Farming system adapts to the irriga�on regime Irriga�on regime adapts to farming system


7

8

who received Type I irriga�on and those who li�ed canal water for Type II irriga�on from the same canal system. The

table shows the vast difference in the income effect of Type I and Type II irriga�on.

Figure 1: Irrigated area by source, 1950 - 51 onwards

Data Sources: Ministry of Agriculture, Central Water Commission, Water Resources Informa�on System Directorate, Ministry of

Sta�s�cs and Programme Implementa�on, Government of India. Data retrieved from www.indiastat.com

Table 3: Income impacts of Type I and Type II irriga�on in Sardar Sarovar project

Source: Created by authors based on data presented in Jagadeesan and Kumar (2015)

In his 2003-04 and 2004-05 work, Ramesh Chand analysed drivers of inter-district varia�ons in agricultural

produc�vity in 477 districts of India. What is the role of Type I and Type II irriga�on in explaining inter-district

produc�vity varia�on? To understand this ques�on, we arranged districts in ascending order of their value of farm

output, divided them into 10 classes and explored if access to Type I and II irriga�on have any role to play in

produc�vity rise. The chart in Figure 2 shows the results. As we move from low to high produc�vity classes, the

45000

40000

35000

30000

25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

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19

50

-51

19

53

-54

19

56

-57

19

59

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19

62

-63

19

65

-66

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68

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19

71

-72

19

74

-75

19

77

-78

19

80

-81

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83

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86

-87

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89

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Canals Tanks

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ted

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a (

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a)

Other Sources

Type I Type II

Gravity flowBharuch, Panchamahal, Narmada

and Vadodara

Canal li�Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Narmada, Mehsana, Bharuch, Surendranagar

Number of farm families surveyed 179 254

Before SSP: Average Gross Cropped Area (ha) 3.71 3.75

A�er SSP: Average Gross Cropped Area (ha) 4.02 10.30

Average household income from crops and dairying before SSP ( )₹

47,580 57,229

Average increase in household income from crops and dairying due to SSP ( )₹

169,003 461,749

Percentage increase in average household income 355% 807%


9

propor�on of area under Type I irriga�on grows, but that under Type II irriga�on grows much faster. In the highest

produc�vity class, the role of Type II irriga�on is greatly accentuated while that of Type I irriga�on declines. The

reason is not far to seek: year-round, on-farm water control plays a major role in improving produc�vity of farming

systems and agrarian livelihoods especially in a context of constantly shrinking size of the holding.

Figure 2: Access to Type I and Type II irriga�on across agricultural produc�vity categories

Poli�cians in India with their ear to the ground are more alive to Type II irriga�on than irriga�on planners. This is why

state leaders like in Gujarat and allocate large funds to provide farmers electricity connec�ons, Madhya Pradesh (MP)

to fill up irriga�on tanks, to increase groundwater recharge, to offer piped water supply for irriga�on rather than in

open channels. They realise that even a�er inves�ng billions in Type I structures, farmers will s�ll crave for Type II

irriga�on. For example, consider Gujarat's 2016-17 budget whose alloca�on for providing on-farm water control is

more in tune with the Har Khet Ko Pani ambi�on: ₹ 9,050 crore for Sardar Sarovar piped distribu�on, ₹ 5,244 crore for

canal maintenance, li� irriga�on schemes, check dams and pipelines for filling up tanks; ₹ 2,000 crore for filling up

215 reservoirs in Saurashtra with Narmada water; ₹ 765 crore for micro-irriga�on on 3 lakh ha; ₹ 4,010 crore

towards farm power subsidies; ₹ 1,643 crore for 1 lakh new tubewell connec�ons, all of which add up to ₹ 22,700

crore for a single year³.

³h�p://anandibenpatel.com/wp-content/uploads/FM-Speech-Forma�ed1.pdf


60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%1.2-13 13-18 18-22 22-25 25-28 28-33 33-38 38-48 48-59 >59

Agricultural Produc�vity per ha ( ) ('000)₹

Type I (% of NSA)

Type II (% of NSA)

10

GW Availability (%)

NA

nega�ve

0-20

20-50

50-100

3. The Geography of Irriga�on Depriva�on in India

Nobody has done the sums but since Independence, India's central and state governments together would have easily

invested 800-900 lakh crore (at current prices) in public (Type I) irriga�on projects of various sizes. These ₹

investments have produced vast benefits; deserts of Punjab, Haryana, western Rajasthan which earlier could support

nothing but nomadic livestock economy have transformed into lush green, highly produc�ve agrarian economies in

our north-west. In the southern region, too, many MMMIP have created pockets of agrarian riches. During recent

decades, a silent groundwater irriga�on revolu�on has taken irriga�on to regions outside the command areas, too.

But a�er all these investments, our agrarian economy today is s�ll characterised by 'irriga�on-have' and 'irriga�on-

have-not' districts and farm-holdings. According to 2011 Agricultural Census, 48 per cent of our farm holdings do not

have irriga�on from any source; while 52 per cent benefit from one or more sources. Our 'irriga�on deprived districts'

fall in two categories. The first comprises hill farming systems — in Kashmir, Himachal, U�arakhand, North-eastern

states, and districts like Darjeeling, Coorg, Nilgiris, Idukki, Wayanad — where the value-produc�vity of farming is

already among the highest in the country. Here, irriga�on is not a binding constraint on produc�vity increase and

there seems no urgent need for irriga�on expansion although these systems may benefit from other development

interven�ons. The second category is of semi-arid and arid districts of the plains in peninsular India—Maharashtra,

parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Gujarat, MP, Chhat�sgarh, Jharkhand and Orissa. Some water-rich

humid districts—in North Bihar, Assam, coastal Orissa—too suffer high level of irriga�on depriva�on.

3.1 The most irriga�on deprived districts in India

Figure 3 highlights the geography of severe irriga�on depriva�on in the country. As outlined earlier, in Hill districts,

irriga�on-depriva�on is not a produc�vity-depressant and therefore less of a problem. However, it is in the central

Indian tribal highlands, Tribal Rajasthan and in the Deccan region that India's real irriga�on have-not districts and

farm holdings are concentrated. Indeed, according to the 2011 Agricultural Census, more than 60 per cent of India's

totally 'irriga�on-deprived' farm holdings are concentrated in the states of Assam, Bihar, Chhat�sgarh, Jharkhand,

Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh (especially, Rayalaseema), Telangana and Orissa.


Figure 3: The most irriga�on deprived districts with propor�on ofunirrigated holdings

Figure 4: Groundwater availability in India's 126 most irriga�on deprived districts

Of the 126 most irriga�on deprived districts, 14 districts (mostly in Rajasthan and some in Peninsular India) are

already u�lizing more than 80 per cent of their annual renewable groundwater resource (see Figure 4). This leaves

112 most deprived districts that have surplus groundwater available for future irriga�on development (Cluster #01⁴).

The chart in Figure 5 compares 100 best-off and 126 worst-off districts in terms of irriga�on access. The la�er are

substan�ally worse off in terms of both access to irriga�on from MMMIP as well as from private groundwater wells

and li� irriga�on systems.

Figure 5: Differences in irriga�on access in India's best-off and worst-off districts

There are other markers of 'irriga�on depriva�on' too. Table 4 uses the 2003-04 and 2004-05 data set compiled by

Ramesh Chand and others (2011) and data from the 4 Minor Irriga�on Census (2006-07; GoI 2014) to examine th

differences in irriga�on access in these two classes of "Irriga�on Have" and “Irriga�on Have-not” districts. The

Irriga�on have-not districts have 1/3 the agricultural output/ha, 25 per cent lower cropping intensity, a quarter of rd

energy use in agriculture and 1/5 of the groundwater irriga�on pumping capacity compared to the 'Irriga�on have' th

districts.

Table 4: How disadvantaged really are irriga�on-deprived districts?

3.2 Irriga�on depriva�on of India's Adivasi farmers

Apart from this spa�al concentra�on, there is also a social dimension to irriga�on depriva�on as outlined in Table 5

which again draws upon data sets from the Agricultural Census 2011. Of India's 138 million farm holdings, 12 million

are owned and operated by Adivasi farmers; these are bigger in size than our average farm holdings but are seriously

deficient in irriga�on access. Indeed, Adivasi farm holdings are substan�ally more 'irriga�on-deprived' than Dalit-

operated farm holdings.

⁴For a detailed discussion on clustering of districts for PMKSY, see Annexure A1.


11

%served byMMMIP

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0%served byprivate wells

100 most irrigated districts

126 most irriga�on deprived districts

All districts (average)

Nu

mb

er

of

dis

tric

ts

Parameters100 most irrigated districts

(average)126 most irriga�on deprived

(average)Na�onal(average)

Agricultural Produc�vity ( per hectare)₹ 47,142 17,837 27,500

Cropping Intensity (%) 170 125 136

Energy consump�on (kWh)/Net Sown Area (NSA) 1134 278 513

Groundwater wells per 1000 opera�onal holdings 247 107 143

Groundwater pump horse power (HP) per 100 ha NSA 206 40 90

Table 5: Adivasi farm-holdings are most 'irriga�on-deprived’

All in all, the social and spa�al dimensions of 'irriga�on depriva�on' come together in 126 districts we have iden�fied

in Figure 3. These should ideally be top priority districts for PMKSY because, without targe�ng them, there is no way

to reach Har Khet Ko Pani. Under its present design, PMKSY has li�le to offer to these districts. Its large outlay on

micro-irriga�on under Per-drop-more-crop is of li�le benefit to these districts because access to pump irriga�on,

which is a pre-condi�on for adop�ng micro-irriga�on, has limited spread in these districts. The micro-irriga�on

program will have most impact in districts which are already densely populated by tubewells. There is a gradual move

to introduce micro-irriga�on in canal commands too; however, this requires reconfiguring the distribu�on systems,

replacing open channel water transport by piped transport under pressure. If and when this is done, it is likely that

pre-exis�ng command areas will be the first to benefit from such technologies.

Similarly, the AIBP component of PMKSY has li�le to offer to the 'most irriga�on-deprived' districts. The chart in thFigure 6 shows that 23 priority AIBP projects which will receive 1/5 of PMKSY funds during 2015-2020 period will

offer li�le to Jharkhand, Chhat�sgarh, Assam, Bihar, Karnataka, Tribal Rajasthan, and tribal Gujarat which have bulk of

the irriga�on-deprived districts of the country. In effect, then, the only components which will offer some support to

these districts are Har Khet Ko Pani and watershed development. India's irriga�on experience shows that produc�vity

and livelihood impacts of watershed development and water harves�ng structures is much greater in areas where

these support intensive groundwater irriga�on through recharge rather than in areas where such structures are used

for direct irriga�on or soil moisture management. Indeed if tank irriga�on were so much of a draw for farmers,

peninsular India's 600,000 irriga�on tanks would not have fallen into disrepair as they have during recent years. And

if their value as groundwater recharge structures were not a big draw for farmers, we would not see such an upsurge

of interest in desil�ng tanks as for example, Telangana's Mission Kaka�ya signifies

Figure 6: Mismatch between AIBP alloca�on (23 priority projects) and irriga�on depriva�on of states

ALL SC ST

Number of farm holdings (million) 138.3 17.1 12.0

Average size of farm holding (hectares) 1.15 0.80 1.52

Percentage holdings receiving any irriga�on 52 54 30

Percentage of land under irriga�on 52 40 19

Percentage holdings irrigated by canals and tanks 16 18 10

Percentage holdings irrigated by wells, tubewells and other sources 38 36 23


12

State's share in India's unirrigated farm holdings (%)

State's share in 23 AIBP schemes (%)

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

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5

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4. Water Resources of 'Irriga�on-deprived' Geography

Type I irriga�on poten�al takes a long gesta�on period extending in some large projects to 30-40 years. The

investment required too is large at 5-7 lakh/hectare. Finally, India (and many other countries) are increasingly ₹

realising that the area actually benefited by Type I irriga�on structures turns out to be considerably smaller than

planned, partly because of erroneous assump�ons about future farmers behaviour but equally because of complex

irriga�on management challenges these projects present.

The best thing about Type II irriga�on is that its poten�al can be easily expanded, quickly, at a much lower capital

cost than Type I irriga�on. A Type II system can be commissioned in a week, if not a day. Because they are owned and

operated by farmers or their groups, they are easier to manage and perform to their poten�al. Poli�cal leaders like

Devi Lal with an earthy sense of what farmers want recognised the poten�al of shallow tubewells (STWs) in

expanding Type II irriga�on in the Ganga basin. His Million Wells Scheme launched during the 1980's provided

borewells and diesel pumps to hundreds of thousands of farmers in the Ganga plains and explains why density of

groundwater structures is so high in that region. Such a program would be ideal for India's 'irriga�on-deprived'

geography, too; but does this geography have the water resource, especially groundwater to support expansion on

groundwater-based Type II irriga�on?

Our irriga�on deprived geography does not have the abundant groundwater resources that the Ganga basin has; but

only a small por�on of the water resource it has is developed; and it has significant scope to augment groundwater

recharge that is not yet recognized. None of India's 58 'dark' or 89 'over-exploited' groundwater districts is in the

irriga�on-deprived geography. These are mostly in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu, all of which are

outside the target geography. True, in these danger zones, further expansion of groundwater use for Type II irriga�on

will only aggravate groundwater deple�on. If anything, our focus here should be on enhancing water use efficiency

and produc�vity, improving aquifer recharge, and enlarging areas under conjunc�ve management of groundwater

and surface water where possible.

CGWB's 2011 es�mates of dynamic groundwater resources, however, show that the 112 districts of India's

irriga�on-deprived geography, where more than 70 per cent of the farm holdings are un-irrigated, have substan�al

scope for expanding Type II irriga�on without posing any threat of resource over-exploita�on even without Managed

Aquifer Recharge (MAR) works. Half or more of the es�mated groundwater poten�al in these districts is available for

development. Moreover, many of these districts receive more precipita�on than India's driest districts leaving room

for augmen�ng groundwater resource through MAR interven�ons.

If these districts have so large unu�lized groundwater resource, why do they suffer irriga�on depriva�on on such a

large scale anyways? In our analysis, four factors get implicated:

· Scarcity of pump capital: Many of these districts have much lower density of energized wells/ borewells at less

than 9 structures per 100 hectares of net sown area compared to India's average of 14; the difference becomes

even larger if we compare installed horsepower (HP) per net sown area.

· Prohibi�ve energy costs: India's Type II irriga�on economy is marked by an energy divide (see Figure 7). In India's

western states, Type II irriga�on is energized by subsidized electricity supply as the main driver. In eastern India

too, all states bar West Bengal offer farm power subsidies; however, these have li�le electricity to offer and no

grid network to reach it to farmers. Type II irriga�on in eastern India is thus run on diesel which, when efficiency

differences are factored in, costs 8-10/kWh compared to 0-1/kWh that farmers in western India pay. High ₹ ₹

energy costs not only deepen 'irriga�on depriva�on' in 126 pump-capital-scarce districts but also some 36

districts where pump-density is comparable to the na�onal average but u�liza�on rate of pumps-borewells is

low.

· Energy scarcity: Then there are 24 odd districts which have high pump density, subsidized electricity and

comfortable groundwater balance, and quite high 'irriga�on depriva�on' simply because they get too li�le power


13

supply, of very poor quality (frequent interrup�on,

low voltage), mostly during the night on a schedule

neither predictable nor reliable. Parts of Karnataka,

Vidarbha, Rayalaseema are illustra�ve of this

condi�on.

· Dry Season Recharge Scarcity: Finally, especially in

hard-rock peninsular India, Type II irriga�on

depriva�on is caused by insufficient groundwater

recharge rela�ve to demand. Many of these are

based on shallow fractured aquifer systems with

limited storage and infiltra�on rates that circulate

monsoonal recharge in an annual cycle. A�er a good

monsoon, wells and bores come alive during winter

and, at �mes, even summer; a�er a bad monsoon,

wells become dry.

When the focus of policy is only on Type II irriga�on

expansion based on groundwater, much of India's hard-

rock geography is bound to experience periodic (not

permanent) recharge-scarcity. However, the experience

of Saurashtra region in Gujarat over the past two decades has shown that, pari passu with groundwater development,

investments in storing rainwater and accelera�ng groundwater recharge can contribute greatly to reducing aquifer

stress. Saurashtra's recharge movement was based on construc�ng large number of new check dams, percola�on

ponds, and such other rainwater harves�ng and recharge structures. However, the 'Irriga�on-deprived geography' of

India already has hundreds of thousands of tradi�onal irriga�on tanks, each much larger than a typical Saurashtra

check-dam. Figure 8 shows massive concentra�on of irriga�on tanks in the irriga�on-deprived geography of India.

Each dot represents surface storage of 10 million

cubic meters. In a good monsoon, these can have

more than one fillings and, if prepared for enhanced

percola�on and infiltra�on, these can contribute much

to enhanced groundwater resource. As a result, tank-

groundwater conjunc�ve management can offer many

possibili�es of sustainable Type II irriga�on

development that are yet to be fully explored.

The import of this discussion is that achieving the

ambi�on of Har Khet Ko Pani in the irriga�on-deprived

geography will require a broad-based, mul�-pronged

strategy of achieving fuller u�lisa�on of Type I

irriga�on investments, rapid expansion of Type II

irriga�on structures, and a variety of interven�ons

that make Type I and II irriga�on expansion

sustainable. And nobody knows this be�er than BJP

governments. During recent years, BJP governments

in Gujarat and MP have set new records in

accelera�ng irriga�on benefits by pursuing such

broad-based, mul�-pronged strategy which arguably

ought to be the template for PMKSY.

Figure 7: The energy divide in India's Type II irriga�on economy

14


Energy Divide (2006-07)Propor�on of Electric Structures

Less than 20%

20-40%

40-60%

60-80%

More than 80%

No MI structures

Figure 8: Es�mated net storage capacity of irriga�on tanks and surface water bodies in PMKSY target districts

1 dot - 10 MCM

Tank storage capacity (CCA*5000m³)

Tank Density

5. Accelerated Irriga�on Benefits in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh post-2000

Post-2000, India has witnessed some glorious irriga�on successes and disastrous failures. Poli�cs has played a part in

both. Throughout history, India's rulers and overlords have used irriga�on to consolidate poli�cal power. In

contemporary poli�cs, BJP and UPA governments too have been doing it but in sharply different ways. Post-2000,

UPA governments used irriga�on to create a spoils system. In 2004, the UPA government in Andhra Pradesh

launched 1.86 lakh crore Jala Yagnam to irrigate 12 million acres. Eight years later, however, a scathing CAG audit ₹

concluded that there was not much to show for 72,000 crore spent un�l then on Jala Yagnam and pronounced that ₹

its 'benefits are illusory'. The scheme got notoriety as chief minister's Dhana Yagnam. In Maharashtra, similarly, the

Congress-NCP government got mired in a 70,000 crore irriga�on scam in drought-prone Vidarbha that produced no ₹

new irrigated area. Top ministers and their cronies were accused of swindling half the funds spent in the name of

irriga�on.

In Gujarat and MP, BJP chief ministers Narendra Modi and Shivraj Singh Chauhan also used irriga�on as a poli�cal

strategy. But neither is accused of an irriga�on scam. Both Modi and Chauhan directly drove the irriga�on-agriculture

growth agenda. Both their governments ran massive media campaigns claiming personal credit for double-digit

agricultural growth under their stewardship. Both won three successive presiden�al-style assembly elec�ons largely

with support from the agrarian classes. During 2001-2014, they spent nothing like the massive sums blown up on

irriga�on by Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Yet, their index of net irrigated area soared while it remained flat for

the two UPA states and for India as a whole (see the chart in Figure 9).

Figure 9: Rapid increase in the index of net area irrigated in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh a�er 2000

Index of Net Area Irrigated from all Sources (2000-01=100)Index of Canal Irrigated area (2000-01=100)

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

Andhra Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Gujarat

Maharashtra India

Gujarat

Andhra Pradesh

India

Maharashtra

20

00

-01

20

01

-02

20

02

-03

20

03

-04

20

04

-05

20

05

-06

20

06

-07

20

07

-08

20

08

-09

20

09

-10

20

10

-11

20

11

-12

20

12

-13

20

13

-14

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

Madhya Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Gujarat

Maharashtra India

Gujarat

Madhya Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh

MaharashtraIndia

20

00

-01

20

01

-02

20

02

-03

20

03

-04

20

04

-05

20

05

-06

20

06

-07

20

07

-08

20

08

-09

20

09

-10

20

10

-11

20

11

-12

20

12

-13

20

13

-14

The accuracy of land use data on irrigated area is o�en ques�oned but Figure 10 presents remote sensing

assessment by Gourav Misra of areas cropped in kharif, rabi and summer seasons in Gujarat during 2003-04 and

2010-11. These also show clear evidence of increased cropping intensity, even a�er allowing for some pockets of

higher rainfall in the la�er period. Thanks to accelerated irriga�on, gross cropped area in Gujarat increased by over

30 per cent in 7 years. Similar was the impact of accelerated irriga�on development in MP too as is evident in Gourav

Misra's remote sensing maps of land cover 'greenness' in the winter of 2009 and 2014 (Figure 11).

How did Modi and Chauhan accelerate irriga�on so successfully in their states? By devising a broad-based mul�-

pronged strategy with single-minded focus on reaching irriga�on to as many farm holdings as possible. Both realised

that big dams and canals are no use unless farmers have year-round, on-farm water control. In improving these, both

also realised the cri�cality of groundwater and quality farm power supply. Under his famous Jyo�gram Yojana, Modi

invested 1,250 crore in rural feeder separa�on to ensure full-voltage, uninterrupted farm power supply for 8 hours ₹

daily to farmers. In power-deficit MP, Chauhan began forward-contrac�ng power purchase from the na�onal grid for

winter season and issued hundreds of thousands of winter-season, 110-day pump connec�ons per year for wheat

irriga�on, MP's main winter crop. These farm power innova�ons alone did much to accelerate irriga�on. Modi (and

his successor chief minister Anandiben Patel) also supported village communi�es to construct 166,000 Check-dams,


15

261,785 farm ponds and 122,035 Bori Bunds for irriga�on and groundwater recharge. Gujarat government has

ensured that 2,5000 irriga�on tanks and reservoirs were desilted and deepened over the past decade; and thousands

of tanks have been connected with Sardar Sarovar canals to create a mellon-on-a-wine irriga�on regime. In her two

year rule, Anandiben Patel issued 2.10 lakh farm power connec�ons, brought 4.02 lakh hectares under micro-

irriga�on on 2.51 lakh farm holdings, completed 332 km long Sujalam Sufalam Recharge canal, began piped

distribu�on of Sardar Sarovar canal command in 3.64 lakh ha, and ini�ated 1,150 km SAUNI pipeline project to fill

115 medium-scale reservoirs of Saurastra with surplus Narmada water⁵. In sum, their strategy for Har Khet Ko Pani is:

get water close to the farmer, give her Type II irriga�on structures, and irriga�on benefits will accelerate.

Figure 10: Remote sensing assessment of changes in single, double and triple cropped areas in Gujarat between 2003-04 and

2010-11

Both Modi and Chauhan used improved governance to accelerate irriga�on. Modi revitalised DISCOMs while

Chauhan rejuvenated the irriga�on bureaucracy. Chauhan realised that government canals operate at a quarter of

their poten�al, thanks to poor maintenance and management. He energized his irriga�on department to radically

improve their management. A tough IAS officer as irriga�on secretary and CM's personal handling of local poli�cal

interference helped to tame the anarchy in canal commands. A�er years of decline, government canals began to

operate as they should and water reached tail-ends like it had never done before. Irrigated area in MP's canal

commands increased from less than 1.0 million hectare (mha) in 2010 to 1.56 mha in 2011, to 2.02 mha in 2012, and

2.33 mha in 2013 and 2.83 mha in 2014, which was a drought year!

16


⁵h�p://gujara�nforma�on.net/downloads/farmers_agri_201617.pdf

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Gujarat: RS es�mates of increase in cropped area:2003-04 to 2010-11

Area cropped 2003-04 (Million hectares)Area cropped 2010-11 (Million hectares)

11.10

12.50

5.50

9.00

1.402.20

SummerRabiMonsoon

Cropped Area 2010-11Cropped Area 2003-04

MONSOON NDVI-2003

No Crop

Croped

RABI NDVI-2004

PCDI (all year) 2003-04

37.57 150 225 300Kilometer

No Crop

1 season

2 seasons

3 seasons

No Crop

Cropped

Seasonal Cropped Area

SUMMER NDVI-2004

MONSOON NDVI-2010RABI NDVI-2011

No Crop

1 season

2 seasons

3 seasons

Seasonal Cropped Area

SUMMER NDVI-2011PDCI (all year) 2010-11

37.57 150 225 300Kilometer

Annual Rainfall Gujarat

Legend (Rainfall in mm)

586-900

901-1300

1301-1700

1701-2100

2101-2500 0 70 140 280

Kilometers

Figure 11: Remote-sensing images of increase in land-cover 'greenness' in MP between winter 2009 and winter 2014

< 0.2 0.2 - 0.4 0.4 - 0.6 0.6 - 0.8 > 0.8

Jan 2009 Feb 2009 Mar 2009

Jan 2014 Feb 2014 Mar 2014

Government of India's Accelerated Irriga�on Benefits Program (AIBP) needs to take a leaf out of Madhya Pradesh's

book. During Chauhan's first decade, MP government spent a total of 36,689 crore on irriga�on, far less than ₹

Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra had done in that period; yet, MP tripled irrigated area in canal commands (from all

sources) from 0.808 mha in 2006 to 2.5 mha in 2012-13. One might suspect that large increase in canal irriga�on

resulted from new projects commissioned on Narmada. However, as Figure 12 shows, canal irrigated area increased

in all of MP's river basins rather than just Narmada. Figures from MP irriga�on department would be expected to

show rapid increase; but even LUS figures show the rapidly increasing trend in canal irriga�on (Figure 11). Figure 13

compares the irriga�on data for MP compiled by NSSO round #59 for 2002-03 and round #70 for 2012-13. These

too show near doubling of rabi irrigated area from all sources and a near 6-fold increase in canal irriga�on for the

farmers sampled.

Figure 12: Area reported irrigated by public canals in different river basins of MP (2011-12 to 2013-14)

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

250000

300000

350000

400000

450000

2011-12 2012-13 2013-14

17


1.136.48

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Govt. canals

28.13

5.09

34.35

16.56

0.96

24.00

3.78

34.73

8.20

46.71

21.12

88.00

63.36

3.52

Wells and tubewells Other sources All sources

Kharif 2003 Kharif 2013 Rabi 2003 Rabi 2013

Figure 13: Increase in percentage of cul�vated area under irriga�on by different sources in MP; comparing NSSO Round #59 (2002-3) with NSSO Round #70 (2012-13)

In 2003, government canals in MP irrigated around 0.65 mha. Under Chauhan's prodding, irriga�on inched up. In

2008 assembly elec�ons, Chauhan reaped rich electoral dividends from farmers for his irriga�on policies. So in 2010,

a�er sacking a corrupt irriga�on secretary, Chauhan brought an upright and pushy officer to run the irriga�on

department, with promise of stable tenure and total support in stamping out poli�cal interference in running canals.

This move delivered. The area irrigated by government canals jumped from less than 1.00 mha in 2010 to 1.56 mha

in 2011, to 2.02 mha in 2012, and 2.33 mha in 2013. In 2014, despite being a poor monsoon year, MP expects the

state will have 3.00 mha irrigated in canal commands (by all sources), more than even the poten�al created of 2.83

mha.

How did MP achieve such miraculous expansion in canal irrigated area? Sheerly by improving irriga�on management

involving Principal Secretary and Superintending Engineers down to 'chawkidars'. The top poli�cal and administra�ve

leadership implemented reforms by making performance-linked demands (PLD) on the bureaucracy and offered

performance-linked supports (PLS) so that the department could rise to the challenge. The PLD-PLS strategy involved

six components:

[1] Restoring canal management protocol: MP restored the primacy and insisted on full enforcement of four forgo�en

rules of effec�ve canal system opera�on viz., ra�onalized irriga�on schedules, tail-to-head irriga�on, osarabandi

(opera�ng canals by strict rota�on) and opera�ng canals at full-supply level (FSL). Obsolete irriga�on schedules

were revised. Water allowances were adjusted to reflect new cropping pa�erns. Areas served by li� irriga�on

from surface and groundwater in command areas began to get counted as canal irrigated areas. Irriga�ng tail-end

first removed the head-tail inequity endemic to canal irriga�on. FSL canal opera�on meant that water reached

tail-ends and could be distributed in an orderly manner. Enforcing osarabandi ensured that distributaries could be

operated at FSL during their rota�ons. The most difficult of all, in early years, was enforcing the 'tail-end first' rule

because it challenged the long-entrenched power rela�ons. In some projects, tail-end farmers were asked to

complete land prepara�on a week or so in advance so that water could be released in advance when head-end

farmers were not ready. Restoring the primacy of 'tail-end-first' required a massive thrust but once it got

accepted, things began to fall in place; farmers adjusted plan�ng schedules; water demand in head began lagging

that in tail. Earlier, when canals ran non-stop at low-supply, it was a winner-take-all game for head-end farmers

who had no pressure to �me plan�ng or save water. Now, osarabandi delivers full-supply for specific pre-

determined �me slots that drives farmers to manage water be�er. Over �me, there is greater apprecia�on among

18


farmers for the discipline of 'tail-end-first' irriga�on and osarabandi since with greater discharge of water, the

fields are irrigated faster saving the farmer �me and labour.

[2] Last mile investments: To enforce the three core-rules requires that systems are well-maintained and in good

repair. A World Bank loan and internal resources were found to priori�se and quickly complete last-mile projects

with high poten�al. Lining big earthen canals on old systems helped reach water to tail ends quickly. Small

investments in rehabilita�ng over 4000 Minor Irriga�on Schemes doubled the area served by them in just two

years from 367,000 hectares to 7,60,000 hectares.

[3] Reducing deferred maintenance: Canals can be operated at FSL only if they are regularly maintained and will not

breach. In most states, a�er salaries are paid, irriga�on departments are le� with no resources for Management,

Opera�on and Maintenance (MO&M). In MP, the department was provided resources to undertake proper

MO&M. Two months ahead of every irriga�on season, the department would be mobilized to desilt and clean all

main canals while Water User Associa�ons (WUAs) cleaned sub-minors and field channels. Even then, in older

systems, risks of canal breach remained. Engineers were enjoined to run FSL and, if they occurred, fix the

breaches within a stringent �me limit; in doing so, they were backed by the department bosses.

[4] Constant Monitoring: The hallmark of new management was relentless monitoring. Poten�al created was taken as

the target for irriga�on. Regular weekly video-conferences taken by the Secretary and newly introduced ICT

systems created pressure for performance. The long abandoned prac�ce of engineers overseeing irriga�on

opera�ons in the field got revived with the secretary and chief engineer themselves frequently heading out in the

field. Irriga�ng tail-end areas became an obsession and from the Secretary down, the key variable monitored was

whether tail-end fields were watered. In a masterful innova�on, the Engineer-in-Chief would randomly call any of

the 4000 odd mobile numbers of tail end farmers to enquire if water reached her/his field.

[5] Anima�ng the irriga�on bureaucracy: Uns�nted support of the chief minister empowered the irriga�on

bureaucracy to establish order and rule of law in canal commands. Local poli�cal interference was firmly crushed,

when needed with direct interven�on from the chief minister. This had magical effect on the department's

morale which was further enhanced by a new system that recognized and felicitated high performing staff. The

Chief Minister's backing also made coordina�on with agriculture, forest, revenue departments and district

collectors easier, quicker and result-oriented. Time-consuming peripheral issues were declu�ered. An

invigorated irriga�on bureaucracy was focused on the core task of delivering water to as many farmers as

possible especially in the tail-ends.

[6] Vitalizing farmer organisa�ons: Under a new law made in 1999, some 2000 WUAs were formed but mostly lay

defunct. WUAs' had li�le role when poorly managed main system failed to deliver water to many parts of the

command for years. Now that the MO&M of the main system improved, water began reaching the tail-ends and

defunct WUAs sprung to life. By involving them in pre-rabi desil�ng of minors and sub-minors, the department

enhanced its outreach and WUAs became cri�cal partners in irriga�on scheduling, maintenance below outlets

and orderly water distribu�on.

Type I irriga�on development strategy of central and state governments has all along emphasized only construc�on

to the total neglect of Management, Opera�ons and Maintenance (MO&M) of MMMIPs. This is the key reason for

the widening gulf between Irriga�on Poten�al Created (IPC) and Irriga�on Poten�al U�lised (IPU). Central share in

MMMIP is just around 15 per cent of total investment in MMMIP, with states contribu�ng 85 per cent. Given that

central government has no means to compel state governments to devote greater energy and funds to improve

MO&M of MMMIPs, it makes much greater sense for PMKSY to devote central funds only to incen�vize state

governments for MO&M improvements in public irriga�on systems and leave it to states to find resources for

19


construc�on, especially with greater devolu�on of funds to states under XIV Finance Commission report. Many

states with large MMMIPs have starved their irriga�on departments of funds, professional staff and capacity building

even as they spend massive sums in new construc�on. This is an old syndrome of India's MMMIP. David Seckler had

remarked 40 years ago that, “As the rug of irriga�on development is rolled out ahead through construc�on of new

facili�es, it will roll up behind through poor maintenance and management of exis�ng facili�es” (cited in Wade 1984, 286).

There is li�le the Central Government can do to fight this syndrome because MMMIPs are managed by state

Irriga�on Departments. However, what it can do is encourage and incen�vize irriga�on management improvements

by spreading word about innova�ons and best prac�ces that have succeeded elsewhere. The abandoned XII Five

Year Plan had created a NIMF under which central government had offered to reimburse state irriga�on departments

for all Irriga�on Service Fee (ISF) they collected from farmers on a 1:1 basis, and for ISF collected through WUAs on a

1: 1.3 basis provided resources so mobilised were made available to respec�ve irriga�on systems and WUAs for

improving MO&M and level of irriga�on service. The underlying thinking was that such an incen�ve scheme would

restore the accountability loop between farmers and irriga�on department staff that have got eroded due to free or

subsidized irriga�on policies that have taken root in all states. NIMF needs to be the core of AIBP in PMKSY.

20


6. New Opportuni�es for Type II Irriga�on: The Promise of the Solar Pump

A major opportunity for expanding and sustaining Type II irriga�on in our target geography that PMKSY has ignored

is the promise of solar irriga�on pumps. For a long �me, solar pump has been tried on research farms; but now, the

falling costs of panels are mainstreaming the technology. Un�l 2012, India had less than 1000 solar pumps; but at

the end of 2015, we already had 35,000. The numbers are expected to grow in geometric progression because solar

pumps overcome key pi�all of diesel pumps, viz., high fuel cost, and of subsidized grid power, viz., frequent

interrup�ons, low voltage and 6-7 hours of mostly nightly supply. Solar pumps, in contrast enjoy 7-9 hours of

uninterrupted, reliable, day�me power free of opera�ng cost (Figure 14). Being off-grid, they are also easier to install

and require li�le maintenance. As panel prices fall with market expansion, solar pumps can be expected to make

deeper inroads in our Type II irriga�on economy.

Solar pumps can be a boon for our energy-scarce

districts which have ground and surface water

available for Type II irriga�on development. Most

of these districts have low grid-penetra�on; as a

result, prospects of reaching grid power for Type II

irriga�on any �me soon are small and distant.

Even when villages are connected to the grid,

connec�ng individual tubewells/wells with grid

entails capital investment of the order of 2.0-2.5 ₹

lakh. Even though solar panels are expensive in

absolute terms, a solar pump is a cost-effec�ve

alterna�ve to a grid-connected pump if

connec�on costs are included in the cost of

energizing a structure. Districts in Bihar,

Chha�sgarh, eastern U�ar Pradesh, Orissa,

Assam, MP and Jharkhand—in sum, much of the

irriga�on-deprived geography—have 153 pump-

sets per 1000 ha of net sown area, most suffer

from low opera�ng factor because of high cost of

diesel and fuel that drive 88 per cent of them.

Farmers here use only 500-600 kWh (equivalent)/

hectare of energy in pump irriga�on compared to

2000 kWh/hectare in districts with subsidized

electricity. No wonder farm worker produc�vity

and cropping intensi�es are low in these districts.

As solar pump numbers swell, a major threat is that their owners will mimic the economic behavior of grid

connected pumps with ra�oned free power, but with the addi�onal benefit of be�er quality, day-�me power for

2500-2800 hours/year. The legi�mate fear is that as solar pumps numbers grow, the pressure on groundwater

resources will increase enormously. Governments try to counter this danger by limi�ng subsidy to small-size solar

pumps and making it condi�onal to farmer buying micro-irriga�on system. In Rajasthan, with the largest number of

solar pumps, these condi�ons have already been watered down: under pressure from farmers, solar pump subsidy

has been raised from 2 kWp to 3 kWp and now to 5 kWp. As panel costs fall making solar pumps affordable without

subsidy, these condi�onali�es will any way not alleviate the groundwater threat of solar pumps.

2Figure 14: Global solar radia�on in India (kWh/m )

Source: h�p://www.tnsea.in/solar-energy-in-india.html

21


5.4-5.6

5.4

Srinagar

5.45.8

5.6-5.8Jammu

ShimlaChandigarh

5.4

New Delhi

5.4-5.6

LucknowJaipur6.4

6.0-6.26.2-6.4

5.4

5.0-5.2

Gantok4.6-4.8

4.8-5.0

5.4

5.2-5.44.6

Itanagar

Kohima

Imphal5.0-5.2

AizawlAgartala

Kolkata5.4

Bhubaneshwar

5.8-6.0Bhopal

Ahmedabad

5.6-5.8

5.4 5.4-5.6

Patana

Thiruvananthapuram

5.6-5.85.8

Chennai

Bangalore

5.4-5.6

Panaji

Mumbai

Hyderabad

1600170018001850190019502000205021002150220023002305

4.64.6-4.84.8-5.05.0-5.4

5.45.4-5.6

5.85.8-6.06.0-6.26.2-6.4

6.4

5.6-5.8

Global solar radia�on in india

KWh(m2) daily KWh(m2) annual

PMKSY needs to respond to the solar pump's mixed bundle of opportunity and threat in a foresigh�ul manner. The

only way to ensure sustainable water use under solar pumps is to incen�vize farmers to conserve free solar power

and groundwater. This can be done by connec�ng solar pumps to the grid and giving farmers long-term buy-back

guarantee for surplus solar energy at an a�rac�ve feed in tariff. Electricity companies will resist having to buy small

amounts of solar power from individual farmers due to the high transac�on and vigilance costs involved. However, a

cluster of solar pump irrigators brought together in a coopera�ve-owned micro-grid can overcome this resistance.

This concept has been piloted in village Dhundi in Gujarat through a Solar Pump Irrigators' Coopera�ve Enterprise

(SPICE). Such a SPICE presents a win-win game for farmers, for power sector and for sustainable groundwater

management. Farmers get quality power for irriga�on and a stable, remunera�ve market for their surplus solar

energy. DISCOMs can use SPICE to do away with power subsidies and create a smart grid. The groundwater

economy can become more sustainable by doing away with perverse power subsidies and incen�vizing farmers for

conserva�on of energy and water.

In groundwater-rich eastern India, solar pumps can help create compe��ve irriga�on service markets if young

farmers in every village are supported to acquire a 6-8 kWp solar pump and a 1,000 meter buried pipe distribu�on

system to operate as entrepreneurial Irriga�on Service Providers (ISPs). Such ISPs having diesel pumps are already

playing a role in the irriga�on economy of the region but their high water prices put water buyers in a dominant

seriously disadvantageous posi�on. The same ISPs would slash their water prices down if their diesel pumps were

replaced by solar pumps with comparable water output. By expanding a compe��ve market for irriga�on services,

the solar ISP model can accelerate Type II irriga�on development but in some areas result in groundwater over-

development by increasing demand for irriga�on.

The SPICE model has relevance in groundwater-rich districts as well as groundwater-stressed districts. The surplus

energy buy-back guarantee gives solar pump irrigators two op�ons: use it to sell irriga�on service to neighboring

farmers or evacuate it to the grid. In groundwater rich-districts, a low feed-in tariff will strengthen incen�ve to sell

irriga�on service, intensify compe��on on solar ISPs and make irriga�on service available to buyers at affordable

prices. In groundwater stressed districts, a high feed-in tariff for power buy back will raise the opportunity cost of

using solar energy to pump water for own use as well as for selling to others, raise water prices, and force all water

users to conserve water. In sum, the feed-in tariff offered for solar power buy-back will act as a surrogate water

price to signal the scarcity value of water. All perverse impacts that the country has witnessed all these years due to

invidious energy-irriga�on nexus can, in principle, be neutralized by proper promo�on and governance of solar

pumps through SPICE pa�ern.

22


7. New Opportuni�es for Type II Irriga�on: Peri-urban Wastewater Irriga�on

Municipal wastewater has been used world over for irriga�on, for a long �me. Around the mid nineteenth century,

'sewage farms' were common in many parts of Europe and United States. For decades, the wastewater (WW) from

Paris was transported in canals for spreading on a 5,000 ha plot which developed into a highly produc�ve vegetable

growing area. The large size and superb quality of the vegetable produce a�racted great interest among farmers and

ci�zens. In India too, evidence of sewage farms exists in and around several ci�es including Amritsar, Delhi,

Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Jamshedpur and Trivandrum. Twenty-five years ago, Strauss and Blumenthal (1990)

es�mated that 73,000 Ha in peri-urban India was subject to wastewater irriga�on; the number is likely to be many-

fold today. IWMI studies in 17 loca�ons es�mate that more than 57,000 hectares of area is being irrigated with

wastewater in that sample of loca�ons alone (see Table 6).

Table 6: Extent of wastewater irriga�on in the periphery of urban centers

Several municipali�es have devised formal and informal arrangements with peri-urban farmers for requisi�oning their

freshwater for municipal use and supplying them wastewater for irriga�on. Rajkot Municipal Corpora�on, for instance,

has been supplying water to two registered wastewater coopera�ves since 1962. Smaller municipali�es like Unjha in

north Gujarat are auc�oning their wastewater to entrepreneurs who then deliver it to farmers. Thus, wastewater

irriga�on is not just common, it is happening everywhere. Driven by freshwater scarcity, growing compe��on from

domes�c and industrial users and rapid urbaniza�on, farmers around the country are embracing wastewater and

benefi�ng from its reliability and nutrient content.

Loca�onNet Wastewater

Irrigated Area (Ha)Source

01.

Gujarat

Ahmedabad 9,450

Palrecha et al. (2012)

02. Vadodara 3,875

03. Rajkot 3,252

04. Gandhinagar 769

05. Bhuj 248

06. Bhavnagar 195

07. Surat 70

08.

Maharashtra

Purandhar LI Scheme 25,498

Ramola et al. (2016)09. Pune 5,580

10. Jalgaon 1,232

11.Jammu & Kashmir

Srinagar 4,227Shaheen (2016)

12. Jammu 1,817

13.Tamil Nadu

Tiruchirapalli 260Leaf Society (2016)

14. Salem 240

15.

Karnataka

Dharwad 210

Gupta et al. (2016)16. Hubli 186

17. Vijaypura 35

TOTAL 57,144

23


A 2008 es�mate of sewage generated by class I and class II Indian ci�es (CPCB 2009) shows that more than 38,000

million litres of wastewater is generated every day; annually, this amounts to nearly 14 billion cubic meters (BCM).

This is sufficient to irrigate 2 mha of land, equivalent to 200 medium irriga�on schemes. Unlike canal irriga�on, this

mode of irriga�on does not require any kind of storage; and there are hardly any evapora�on or conveyance losses.

However, to recognize wastewater irriga�on and promote it further, it is essen�al to take cognizance of some

per�nent public health and soil quality concerns.

7.1 Addressing public health and soil quality concerns

Irriga�on with untreated wastewater has raised some public health and soil quality concerns. In wastewater irriga�on

literature and during our fieldwork, we encountered two types of health concerns: [a] direct exposure to untreated

sewage may cause rashes, irrita�on and skin problems for wastewater farmers; and [b] it is widely suspected that

contaminants in wastewater may enter the food chain, especially when farmers use wastewater to grow food crops, in

par�cular leafy vegetables.

Concerns pertaining to direct exposure can be addressed rela�vely easily through awareness campaigns and basic

precau�ons. Farmers using wastewater should be encouraged to implement sieving and se�ling protocols; and should

be advised to wear safety boots and gloves while on the field. For minimizing the indirect exposure risks, several steps

can be taken:

[a] The municipal administra�on should make sure that domes�c wastewater is not mixed with industrial

wastewater;

[b] To be completely safe, farmers may be asked to grow only non-food crops using wastewater;

[c] In cases where food crops are being grown, leafy vegetables and crops that grow close to the ground should be

avoided; and finally,

[d] A systema�c study of the long-term health impacts of consuming wastewater irrigated food crops should be

undertaken.

Our field studies indicate that farmers do not perceive the health risks or risks to soil quality to be very severe.

Despite decades of wastewater irriga�on, few cases of the harmful effects of direct or indirect exposure have been

reported. All farmers unanimously report significant increase in yield and reduc�on in fer�liser costs with chemical

free wastewater use for irriga�on.

7.2 Opportuni�es for PMKSY

How an economy manages its wastewater correlates strongly with its stage of economic development. A global bird's

eye view suggests a ladder of techno-economic op�ons in wastewater treatment; management and reuse (see Figure

15). In most villages of South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, there is hardly any infrastructure for collec�on, aggrega�on

and treatment of wastewater; disposal is without any treatment and at the household level. As villages grow into

towns, rudimentary infrastructure begins to come up for collec�on and aggrega�on of wastewater and disposal

outside the se�lement. However, in many towns and ci�es of the developing world, the infrastructure for collec�on,

aggrega�on and transporta�on is unable to keep up with the rapid growth of the se�lement area. In these

communi�es, wastewater is a huge threat to the environment as well as to peri-urban quality of life. If managed well,

however, wastewater can be a great resource while also minimizing its nega�ve ecological impact. In very high-income

socie�es, urban wastewater is totally recycled by intensive, mul�-stage treatment that low-income socie�es can ill-

afford.

24


Figure 15: Techno-Economic Ladder of Urban Wastewater Management

The current discourse on municipal water management in India envisages leapfrogging from the current highly

ra�oned public urban water supply to 24/7 supply; from near-zero tariff to a metered tariff regime; from minimal

wastewater treatment to 100 per cent treated wastewater being released into rivers. The discussion is about crea�ng

a world-class, Europe-like systems (where the average household pays about US $1000 per annum for water supply

and sanita�on) for a popula�on where more than 80 per cent cannot even afford to pay 10 per cent of that as service

fee. A more realis�c scenario is that India will go through a long intermediate phase before it reaches this ideal state.

It seems very likely that self-provision, informal markets, and wastewater irriga�on will con�nue to grow in this

phase. The challenge is to create governance regimes that meaningfully integrate the informal economy and public

provisioning into a viable and sustainable system.

7.3 Agenda for Ac�on

Our current wastewater treatment capacity is less than a third of wastewater generated. Further, most treatment

plants do not operate at full capacity owing to poor opera�on and maintenance (O&M) and high running costs. It is

therefore very likely that ter�ary treatment of wastewater for reuse within ci�es will not happen any�me soon. Land

applica�on of wastewater is a well-recognised treatment process which needs to be embraced in policies and urban

development plans. In the medium run, this might also allow us to manage municipal wastewater without inves�ng in

capital and energy intensive treatment plants. Properly managed wastewater irriga�on in peri-urban India offers to:

[1] Add irrigated areas without adding pressure on scarce freshwater resources;

[2] Provide reliable and nutrient rich irriga�on water to farmers, especially during drought years or where

groundwater is of poor quality;

25


12

3

4

5

6Ter�ary treated WWrecycled or stored orreleased into nature toenhance ecological flows

In-situ collec�on / absorp�on of WW athousehold level; No sewerage system

Treated WW used for industry orother economic uses

Untreated WW aggregated and releasedinto rivers / natural water bodies

Ter�ary treatedwastewater blendedwith fresh water tosupply homes

Untreated or moderately treated WWused for irriga�on, industry or recharge

Level of Techno-Economic Management

Co

st p

er

Ho

use

ho

ld (

US

$ /

an

nu

m)

$500

$400

$300

$200

$100

$000

[3] Improve farm incomes by reducing expenditure on fer�lizers and enhancing crop yields;

[4] Co-manage the water and nutrient cycles by returning them to their source;

[5] Alleviate the need for capital and energy intensive wastewater treatment plants;

[6] Reduce environmental pollu�on caused by releasing untreated wastewater into freshwater streams; and

[7] Convert a disposal headache for municipali�es into a valuable resource.

Thus, over the next several decades, wastewater reuse in agriculture offers the best op�on for ci�es to act as smart,

high performance irriga�on systems for peri-urban farmers. A pre-requisite for wastewater irriga�on is that the ci�es

/ municipali�es should have effec�ve wastewater collec�on and aggrega�on systems. Several field pilots can be

taken up as part of PMKSY (see Table 7) to arrive at the best alterna�ves for achieving har khet ko pani.

Table 7: Op�ons for wastewater irriga�on pilots under PMKSY

Wastewater Pilot Treatment Management Delivery

1a. Auc�on; on-demand delivery Primary treatment: Sieving and Se�lement / Stabilisa�on / Aera�on

Pond

Wastewater entrepreneur responsible for

conveyance and delivery

On-demand; through open channels / pipes

1b. Auc�on; rota�onal scheduling of wastewater supply

Wastewater and freshwater supplied

on a rota�on schedule

2a. Reverse Auc�on; on-demand delivery Primary treatment: Sieving and

Se�lement / Stabiliza�on / Aera�on Pond

ULB manages both treatment and delivery


2b. Reverse Auc�on; rota�onal scheduling for wastewater supply

Wastewater and freshwater supplied

on a rota�on schedule

3. Horizontal flow constructed wetland (High land-footprint)

DEWATS model

ULB or private en�ty owns, maintains and

manages the treatment facility; treated

wastewater is supplied to farmers for irriga�on


4. Ver�cal flow constructed wetland (Low land footprint)

IARI-model⁵On-demand; through open channels / pipes

5. Planned drainage and plumbing for op�mal wastewater irriga�on

Separa�on of grey and black water leading to minimal treatment requirement


⁵IARI has developed an “eco-friendly wastewater treatment facility” that uses wetland plants and engineered microorganisms to treat up to 2.2 million liters per day while enjoying low land and energy footprints vis-à-vis conven�onal wastewater treatment plants (See IARI nd.).


26

8 . PMKSY: Prac�cal Ways Forward

8 .1 Reality of Indian Irriga�on

When the BJP manifesto for 2014 parliamentary elec�on assured Har Khet Ko Pani, it was widely expected that the

new NDA government will make a fresh start in India's irriga�on thinking based on the sterling experience of BJP-

ruled Gujarat and MP in rapidly expanding irriga�on coverage on a scale that was unprecedented. However, as

conceived now, the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana focuses mostly on converging pre-exis�ng schemes rather

than envisioning a bold new program appropriate to our needs and challenges. To scale out the irriga�on success of

Gujarat and MP post-2000, PMKSY needs to respond to the following aspects of our irriga�on reality:

1. : A�er 67 years of aggressive planning of irriga�on projects, 48.2 per cent Target Irriga�on-deprived Farm-holdings

of our farm holdings are totally deprived of irriga�on from any source. There are spa�al as well as social

imbalances in irriga�on access; our adivasi farmers and adivasi-dominated districts are our irriga�on have-nots.

PMKSY needs to priori�ze rainfed farm holdings' in India's Irriga�on Deprived Geographies and social groups.

2. : But the bulk of our 'Irriga�on Deprived' holdings are concentrated in 126 Focus on Irriga�on-deprived districts

districts of the country where less than 30 per cent of farm-holdings have any source of irriga�on. These contrast

with 170 top districts where over 70 per cent of farm holdings benefit from irriga�on from one source or

another. PMKSY needs to target energies and resources to these districts. In the current design, it does not.

Lion's share of PMKSY allocated to 23 AIBP priority projects, for instance, have nothing for Assam. Bihar,

Karnataka, UP, Rajasthan, Chha�sgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal which together have a large chunk of our rainfed

farm-holdings.

3. : India's irriga�on strategy has so far targeted expansion of Recognise Changing Role of Type I and Type II Irriga�on

IPC in pockets which can be turned into command areas of MMMIP. These, however, deliver Type I irriga�on for

which there is li�le or no demand. All evidence available shows that since 1990, over 95 per cent of new irrigated

farm holdings have been delivered through Type II Irriga�on from privately owned groundwater wells or li�

irriga�on schemes powered by electricity or diesel. The role of Type I public and community irriga�on schemes is

increasingly to support Type II irriga�on. The year-round, on-demand water control offered by Type II irriga�on

makes small farms far more produc�ve and resilient compared to Type I irriga�on.

4. : With rapidly falling solar panel prices and growing Recognise the Game-Changing Poten�al of Solar Pumps

acceptance among farmers, solar pumps are certain to be a game-changer in India's near-term irriga�on future.

The Modi government has already set ambi�ous targets for renewable energy genera�on; the ques�on is

whether it will also recognize how solar irriga�on pumps can play a cri�cal role in achieving those targets while at

the same �me: [a] incen�vize efficient use of groundwater in water-scarce regions; [b] significantly reduce

irriga�on depriva�on in groundwater-abundant, energy-scarce regions; [c] bring addi�onal, climate-proof income

to farmers; [d] reduce the carbon footprint of India's groundwater irriga�on; [e] reduce the land footprint of

India's solar ambi�ons; and [f] reduce India's farm power subsidy burden.

5. : As India urbanizes, towns and ci�es are emerging as reservoirs Develop Peri-urban Wastewater Irriga�on Poten�al

that release constant, year-round wastewater supply to sustain Type II irriga�on of high value crops on a

perennial basis. According to Central Pollu�on Control Board, our ci�es already release some 14 BCM of

wastewater annually, nearly twice the storage of dam. A lot of this is already in use for irriga�on Sardar Sarovar

with uncertain health impacts for irrigators as well as consumers. With minimal investment in primary treatment

of urban wastewater, it is possible to eliminate these health risks and create a win-win irriga�on economy. Our

target irriga�on-deprived geography is also lowest in urbaniza�on rates; many of its growing towns and ci�es

have yet not begun inves�ng heavily on drainage and treatment. PMKSY needs to be proac�ve in pilo�ng

27


drainage investments designed to support in a planned manner treated wastewater irriga�on rather than

retrofi�ng pre-exis�ng drainage systems or allowing unplanned wastewater irriga�on by default.

6. : Type I irriga�on is costly ( 10 lakh/ha) in terms of capital investment, Emphasize Scale, Speed, Cost-effec�veness ₹

takes 20-30 years to commission, is increasingly fraught with land acquisi�on problems and suffers from severe

MO&M problems. In contrast, Type II irriga�on requires lower investment ( 0.5-2.0 lakh/ha), can be ₹

commissioned quickly, needs no land acquisi�on, and can be owned and managed by farmers. It therefore makes

great sense for PMKSY to target rapid expansion of Type II irriga�on.

28


Geographies Defining aspectNumber of

Districts

Cri�cal Objec�ve/s

Cluster #01Groundwater surplus districts with high share of farm holdings without any source of Type I or Type II irriga�on

112 1

Cluster #02Groundwater-surplus districts where Type II irriga�on is constrained by high energy cost

36 1

Cluster #03Groundwater surplus districts where Type II irriga�on is constrained by inadequate electricity supply

24 1

Cluster #04Groundwater-deficit alluvial districts where Type II irriga�on will further deplete aquifers

103 2, 3

Cluster #05Groundwater deficit hard-rock districts with excessive groundwater deple�on (dark or over-exploited zones)

27 2, 3

Cluster #06 Districts with dense network of MMM systems and large canal irriga�on areas 114 2, 5

Cluster #07Districts with high density of irriga�on tanks, check-dams, and water harves�ng structures

161 2, 5

Cluster #08 Districts with Class I or II towns - 4

Cluster #09Hill districts, mostly in Himalayas, where agro-clima�c condi�ons are not conducive for conven�onal irriga�on

100 6

Cluster #10 Districts with high irriga�on incidence and high agricultural produc�vity 54 -

Cluster #11 Districts with high irriga�on incidence and low agricultural produc�vity 41 -

Cluster #12 Urban and UT districts with li�le agriculture and missing or patchy data 25 -

Table 8: Clustering of Districts for PMKSY Interven�ons

8.2 Objec�ves PMKSY should pursue and their Contextual Fit

Given this reality, PMKSY should be designed to achieve following six objec�ves, in that order of priority:

1. Provide affordable Type II irriga�on access to irriga�on-deprived farm holdings in the country's irriga�on-

deprived geographies;

2. Maximise areal spread of conjunc�ve management of ground water and surface water in command areas of

MMMIP, irriga�on tanks and large water harves�ng structures such as check dams;

3. Enhance efficiency and produc�vity of irriga�on water use especially in groundwater-stressed geographies

through micro-irriga�on and piped-conveyance;

4. Develop integrated peri-urban irriga�on to promote planned wastewater irriga�on as a major Type II irriga�on

solu�on;

5. Improve the financial and ins�tu�onal sustainability of public and community irriga�on systems; and

6. Promote tradi�onal and innova�ve water harves�ng and diversion systems and support spring-shed

development especially in hill agro-ecologies.

29


Box 8a: Special Focus on Cluster #01

During the 1980's and early 1990's, GoI's Million Wells Scheme offered liberal subsidies and bank loans to small farmers to develop

groundwater-based Type II irriga�on. U�ar Pradesh's “Free Boring Scheme” of the 1980's is the reason eastern and central UP have

high density of shallow tubewells today. The same strategy has also worked to expand irriga�on access in tribal districts of Gujarat

where over the past decade over half a million new power connec�ons were issued specifically to Adivasi and SC groups. The quickest

and most cost-effec�ve way to expand irriga�on in these Cluster #01 districts is through a program to provide Type II irriga�on assets

to poor farm households (Ac�on Item #1).

Our analysis shows that in the 112 most irriga�on deprived districts, there is poten�al for 5.67 million new irriga�on wells with an 3annual yield of 10,000 m /year (see Figure ES.2). Doing this can bring an addi�onal 11.34 mha under irriga�on without in any way

threatening the sustainability of groundwater resources. This would also wipe away the irriga�on depriva�on in these districts, taking

irrigated area from the current 11.6 per cent to 43.3 per cent, making the region at par with the na�onal average. However, at an

average cost of ₹ 50,000 per well, 5.67 million new irriga�on wells would cost ₹ 28,350 crores; an unlikely alloca�on in the current

PMKSY. As a first step, a more realis�c plan would be to budget for 1.0-1.5 million new irriga�on wells in Cluster #01 under PMKSY by

2020.

Jharkhand has used MGNREGA funds to dig nearly 100,000 wells on Adivasi holdings in recent years. The constraint however is that

they all have diesel pumps; and diesel is expensive and troublesome to procure. PMKSY can leverage exis�ng efforts by the Ministry of

Energy and the Rural Electrifica�on Corpora�on to bring electrifica�on to these villages and energize pumps. Complete electrifica�on

is a long-term goal and requires substan�al resources, especially providing electricity connec�ons to remote irriga�on wells. In

contrast, there are opportuni�es to fulfil at least part of future pump electrifica�on demand by subsidizing solar-powered irriga�on

pumps in lieu of electric connec�ons. PMKSY needs to ini�ate a special subsidy-cum-loan solar pump promo�on program for Adivasi

farmers in these districts. Such a program should support off-grid individual solar pumps, grid-connected solar pumps under the SPICE

model, as well as solar ISPs, as discussed in sec�on 6.

Together the million wells and solar promo�on package will add 5.0-7.5 mha to the region's gross irrigated area; and will li� millions of

Adivasi farmers out of poverty. In the short run, such public investments can be reinforced with CSR and philanthropic interven�ons.

Over �me, these will also trigger hundreds, if not thousands, of crores of private investments in Type II irriga�on; reduce distress

migra�on and cause improvements on various socio-economic parameters.

Different district-clusters face different irriga�on-water challenges and require differen�ated program strategies (see

Table 8). There are scores of districts which already have high coverage of Type II irriga�on but face threat of serious

resource deple�on and deteriora�on. These need one kind of response. But there is also a large number of districts

where the spread of Type II irriga�on is s�ll minimal. For example, many districts in Jharkhand or western Orissa fall in

cluster #01 which needs a cri�cal PMKSY interven�on very different from what most districts in Punjab and Haryana

in cluster #04 need. Likewise, irriga�on access in Telangana, Rayalaseema, Karnataka is constrained by an en�rely

different set of factors that need targeted response. Table 8 a�empts a clustering of India's districts according to their

irriga�on challenges and suggest cri�cal objec�ves PMKSY should follow in each cluster.

8 .3 PMKSY Interven�ons

Un�l now, conven�onal irriga�on planning has focused mostly on large surface water development projects that are

capital and land intensive and have long gesta�on periods. Moreover, farmers are increasingly lukewarm to these

because these offer Type I irriga�on while farmers demand Type II. To cater to these differen�ated needs of different

geographies, PMKSY needs to deploy a broader and diversified repertoire of programma�c instruments. We suggest

15 ac�on items as instruments in this repertoire as outlined in Table 9. Not all these have equal relevance to different

clusters; for each cluster of districts, some are cri�cal but others can play a suppor�ve role.

In some of the best irrigated districts of the country, 60-70 per cent of farm holdings have their own wells, pumps

and pipe distribu�on systems or have private or shared li� systems drawing water from a perennial source for Type II

irriga�on. Irriga�on deprived districts, 112 in our Cluster #01, are characterized by a majority of farm holdings lacking

such apparatus for Type II irriga�on. We propose that this cluster be targeted as the primary beneficiary of PMKSY

(see Box 8a).

Table 9: Proposed PMKSY interven�ons

# Ac�on Item Details of ac�vi�es

1Support for Groundwater/ Li� Irriga�on

Targeted support to Irriga�on-deprived farm households to make wells/ borewells and install irriga�on pumps with 500 meters of piped distribu�on system on the lines of Million Wells Scheme during early 1990's

2Affordable, assured power for peak season irriga�on

7-8 hours of assured, uninterrupted, full voltage power supply to irriga�on wells; supply of single season power connec�ons for li� or well irriga�on

3Support to Solar Pump Irrigators' Coopera�ves

Promote grid-connected solar farmers coopera�ves with a�rac�ve power-purchase guarantee in grid-networked areas with high tubewell density and groundwater deple�on

4Support to Solar Pump-based ISP

ISP in groundwater-rich but energy-scarce villages (as in Bihar), promote in each village a group of solar pump-based ISP with a 6-8 kWp solar pump with 1000 meters of buried pipe network

5 Support to Micro-irriga�on GGRC-pa�ern in micro-irriga�on promo�on especially in groundwater-stressed districts

6Closing IPC-IPU gap in exis�ng MMM irriga�on systems

Support for annual pre-monsoon desil�ng of minor and sub-minor canals; lining of main and branch canals; desil�ng of minor and medium reservoirs; last-mile investment in comple�ng incomplete distribu�on system

7Suppor�ng conversion to last-mile piped-canal water supplies

Delivering canal supplies to individual or common sumps for piped irriga�on (à la Indira Gandhi Nahar) or through buried pipe network as in Sardar Sarovar project

8Tank-groundwater conjunc�ve management

Regular desil�ng of irriga�on tanks (as in Telangana's Mission Kaka�ya); removal of encroachment on tank-beds and supply channels; buried pipe supply channels; linking tanks with canals; recharge-sha�s and percola�on tanks

9Water harves�ng and groundwater recharge

Centralized: Sujalam Sufalam, recharge sha�s, recharge tubewells, infiltra�on wells Decentralized: Anicuts, �ny check dams, farm ponds, well-recharge

10Watershed treatment with accent on groundwater recharge

Shi� focus from stabilizing kharif crop through improved soil-moisture regime to enhanced groundwater recharge for rabi and summer irriga�on by inves�ng in nala-plugs, check dams, percola�on ponds, well-recharge

11Support improved management of main system in MMM projects

Establish tail-end-first irriga�on protocol; operate the canal system at full-supply level; announce irriga�on schedule in advance; enforce rota�onal water supply

12 Opera�onalise NIMFIncen�vize WUA's to vigorously collect Irriga�on Service Fee (ISF); provide resources to Irriga�on Department for regular opera�ons and maintenance of the main system

13Peri-urban wastewater irriga�on

Support pilot projects for safe peri-urban wastewater irriga�on based on primary, eco-friendly treatment

14 Spring-shed ManagementSupport ini�a�ves such as Government of Sikkim's Dhara Vikas program for revival and improved management of mountain springs

15Tradi�onal land and water management systems

Support revival of tradi�onal hill water management prac�ces such as rainwater harves�ng, diversion irriga�on, ice stupas / ar�ficial glaciers etc.

30


In cluster #02 and #03 districts, irriga�on access is constrained by affordability and availability of energy. Bihar,

Assam, Eastern U�ar Pradesh, Coastal Orissa, North Bengal are all flush with groundwater but have significant Type II

irriga�on depriva�on mostly because these are dependent on expensive diesel which delivers power at an effec�ve

cost of ₹ 8-10/kWh. This obliges small holders either to avoid irriga�on or to use it sparingly. In Vidarbha, Telangana,

Marathawada, Rayalaseema, much of Karnataka, there is a fairly high density of Type II irriga�on structures

connected to the grid. However, irriga�on here is constrained by erra�c, low-voltage electricity supply.

Table 10: PMKSY clusters of districts and interven�ons

GeographiesCri�cal PMKSY Interven�ons

(Ac�on Item #)Suppor�ve Interven�ons

(Ac�on Item #)

Cluster #01 ①④ ②③⑧

Cluster #02 ②④ ①③⑤

Cluster #03 ②③ ⑤⑧⑨⑩

Cluster #04 ③⑤ ⑦⑧⑨

Cluster #05 ③⑤ ⑧⑨⑩

Cluster #06 ⑥⑦ ⑪⑫

Cluster #07 ⑧⑨ ⑩⑪

Cluster #08 ⑬

Cluster #09 ⑭⑮ ⑨⑩

In conclusion, then PMKSY as designed now is unlikely to ensure Har Khet Ko Pani, leave alone double farm incomes

in five years. Many pre-exis�ng schemes such as AIBP that the current design converges had doub�ul track record

during the UPA regime. In contrast, the current design learns nothing from the outstanding irriga�on successes post

2000 of BJP governments especially in Gujarat and MP where irrigated farm holdings grew at double digit growth

rates.

31


Clusters #04 and #05 present altogether different challenges; these are already among the best-endowed with

Type II irriga�on structures but growing water scarcity and groundwater deple�on is reducing their u�liza�on factor.

In Clusters #06 and #07, there is massive opportunity for conjunc�ve management of canal networks and irriga�on

tanks that can greatly expand Type II irriga�on. Cluster #08 offers opportuni�es for systema�c development of

wastewater irriga�on. India's hill districts in Cluster #09 have unique agro-clima�c condi�ons where conven�onal

irriga�on development might not be prac�cal. In these districts, tradi�onal land and water management prac�ces,

innova�ons like ice stupas in Leh and spring-shed management need to be promoted.

Clusters #10 consists of 54 districts that have high irriga�on coverage and high agricultural produc�vity. These

districts have li�le to gain from PMKSY in terms of irriga�on expansion but they highlight the poten�al contribu�on

that irriga�on can make in boos�ng a district's agrarian economy. Cluster #11, on the other hand, consists of 41

districts that too have high irriga�on coverage but have agricultural produc�vity below na�onal average. These

districts too probably cannot benefit much from PMKSY but they underscore the fact that irriga�on alone cannot

guarantee high produc�vity. Cluster #12 is the residual cluster and includes city districts (like Hyderabad, Mumbai

etc.), urban / UT districts (like Daman, Diu, Chandigarh etc.) and island districts (such as Lakshadweep, Andaman and

Nicobar).

8 .4 PMKSY: Prac�cal Ways Forward

Table 9 outlines the contours of a PMKSY strategy designed to make significant progress along all six objec�ves in a

5-7 year �me horizon. Indeed, the most cri�cal objec�ve of providing basic Type II irriga�on access to a majority of

India's irriga�on-deprived farm holdings can be achieved in 2-3 years in a campaign mode. More difficult and �me-

consuming may be objec�ves 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Table 10 iden�fies from our 15 ac�on items those which are most

cri�cal for each cluster of districts. In addi�on, it also suggests suppor�ve ac�on items that will enhance the

effec�veness and sustainability of the cri�cal ac�on items for each cluster.

In order to ensure Har Khet Ko Pani, PMKSY should stop chasing irriga�on poten�al crea�on under Type I irriga�on

projects. Since states contribute over 85 per cent of capital investment in MMMIP and neglects their MO&M, it

makes sense for the PMKSY to use the central funds primarily to improve MO&M of MMMIP. Moreover, the biggest

near term priority for PMKSY should be to accelerate provision of Type II irriga�on access to some 67 million of

India's 138.5 million farm holdings that have no irriga�on from any source. Even among these, we need to first

concentrate on reaching out to rainfed farm holdings in pre-dominantly rainfed districts. Rainfed farm holdings in

irrigated districts can generally purchase Type II irriga�on and save their crops. But rainfed farmers in predominantly

rainfed districts do not even have that op�on. This calls for focussing energy and resources in 112 cluster #01

districts. This priority can be met in a 3-5 year campaign to provide Type II irriga�on assets to these. However, these

households are mostly Adivasi, are concentrated in tribal-dominated states, and have not coalesced into vocal

demand systems. It is important to remember that even in 112 cluster #01 districts, what type II irriga�on systems

are there at present are owned mostly by non-adivasi farmers. These can get Type II irriga�on access only if their

state governments can implement boldly targeted plans to implement a strategy to provide them year-round, on-farm

water control quickly.

There is also need to rethink where to make investments if the idea is to target irriga�on have-nots. Quick results for

Har Khet Ko Pani are possible only by targe�ng farm holdings rather than dams and canal systems. Again, Gujarat and

MP have exemplified how to target farm holdings for immediate water control rather than mega–schemes with

distant and uncertain irriga�on benefits. If PMKSY remains driven by AIBP and 'per-drop-more-crop', it is certain that

India's irriga�on-deprived geography will be le� with only watershed development programs. Doing these well will

help stabilize kharif crops; but it will leave Adivasi farmers deprived of the full benefits of year-round, on-farm water

control. For that, PMKSY must rapidly expand Type II irriga�on in clusters #01, #02 and #03 with groundwater

development, solar pumps, wastewater irriga�on, MAR, piped water delivery, micro-irriga�on and conjunc�ve

management of water from rain, canals, tanks and groundwater.

8.5 PMKSY: Implementa�on, Monitoring and Evalua�on

As with any program of this size, implemen�ng PMKSY will be a managerial challenge. If the district irriga�on plans

are any indica�on, states and districts are likely to draw up unrealis�c plans which will be impossible to implement

with the given resources and within the 2015-2020 �me frame. The central administra�on of PMKSY will have to

make some hard choices in priori�zing investments and giving a realis�c shape to district plans. There is also a real

danger of mul�ple levels of overlaps with on-going central and state schemes as well as other donor-driven programs.

For instance, as PMKSY district plans are being prepared, the GoI is also developing an ambi�ous US$ 1 billion

Na�onal Groundwater Management Improvement Program (NGMIP) in partnership with the World Bank. Given that

NGMIP will focus on groundwater over-exploited regions and focus on community-based demand management, it

might be be�er to link the 'per drop, more crop' component with NGMIP, rather than PMKSY. Likewise, the Bharat

Rural Livelihood Founda�on (BRLF), set up in 2013 with the objec�ve to “foster and facilitate civil society ac�on in

partnership with government for transforming the livelihoods and lives of people in areas such as the Central Indian Adivasi

belt”, can be a useful partner for targe�ng Cluster #01 under PMKSY.

Emphasis on scale, speed and cost-effec�veness will require transparency in transac�ons and opera�onal flexibility in

implementa�on at the ground level. Involvement of donors, CSR, CSOs and grassroots NGOs can help in effec�ve

program implementa�on, monitoring, review and evalua�on. For instance, in Cluster #01 districts of central India, the

Tata Trusts have set up CInI (Collec�ves for Integrated livelihood Ini�a�ves) which works with a large network of

grassroots organisa�ons to promote agriculture-based tribal livelihoods. Similarly, Arghyam, a public charitable

founda�on set up by the Nilekanis is working with a large network of NGOs and CSOs in the hill districts of India

(Cluster #09) on an ini�a�ve to revive Springs. Partnerships between PMKSY and such ins�tu�ons can leverage

useful synergies with their programs.


32

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33

34


ANNEXURE A1: Clustering of Districts

With its diverse geography, hydrogeology and socio-economic condi�ons, different parts of the country face different

problems in sustainably accessing water resources for produc�ve uses in agriculture. This means that a 'one-size-fit-all' thdesign cannot work for any na�onwide program. Based on data from the 9 Agricultural Census (2010-11) and the

Minor Irriga�on Census (2006-07), we have compiled a list of 590 districts and divided them into 12 clusters as

shows in Table A.1.

Table A.1: Clustering of Districts for PMKSY Interven�ons

Each cluster represents a set of districts that exhibit a par�cular characteris�c. In this , we explain how we sec�on

have iden�fied districts in each cluster.

Geographies Defining aspectNumber of

Districts

Cluster #01Groundwater surplus districts with high share of farm holdings without any source of Type I or Type II irriga�on

112

Cluster #02 Groundwater-surplus districts where Type II irriga�on is constrained by high energy cost 36

Cluster #03Groundwater surplus districts where Type II irriga�on is constrained by inadequate electricity supply

24

Cluster #04 Groundwater-deficit alluvial districts where Type II irriga�on will further deplete aquifers 103

Cluster #05Groundwater deficit hard-rock districts with excessive groundwater deple�on (dark or over-exploited zones)

27

Cluster #06 Districts with dense network of MMM systems and large canal irriga�on areas 114

Cluster #07 Districts with high density of irriga�on tanks, check-dams, and water harves�ng structures 161

Cluster #08 Districts with Class I or II towns -

Cluster #09Hill districts, mostly in Himalayas, where agro-clima�c condi�ons are not conducive for conven�onal irriga�on

100

Cluster #10 Districts with high irriga�on incidence and high agricultural produc�vity 54

Cluster #11 Districts with high irriga�on incidence and low agricultural produc�vity 41

Cluster #12 Urban and UT districts with li�le agriculture and missing or patchy data 25

Cluster #01: Most Deprived, Groundwater Surplus Districts (112)

The agricultural census (2010-11) provides data on

irrigated and unirrigated holdings in each district. From

the 590 districts in the country, we first picked out the

192 most irriga�on deprived districts, i.e. districts which

have the least propor�on of holdings with access to any

irriga�on – Type I or Type II. Among these districts, none

have more than 30 per cent of their holdings as irrigated.

Since hill ecosystems might not be conducive for

conven�onal irriga�on development programs, we

decided to separate them into a different cluster (see

Cluster #09). A few others among the 192 were urban

districts, islands or union territories that have limited

agriculture and patchy or missing data (Cluster #12).

A�er removing these, we arrived at 126 most irriga�on

deprived districts. Of the 126, we further excluded 14

districts where groundwater development is already

more than 80 per cent and where further development

of groundwater-based irriga�on would lead to deple�on.

The remaining 112 districts form this cluster as “most

irriga�on-deprived, groundwater surplus districts”.

Cluster #02: Groundwater Surplus; High Pump Density; Type II Irriga�on Constrained by High Energy

Cost (36)

Much of the irriga�on-deprived districts in Cluster #01

have sparse irriga�on infrastructure. However, there are

also districts that have abundant groundwater and

rela�vely high density of groundwater structures but

li�le Type II irriga�on. Irriga�on development in these

districts is constrained not by physical resource scarcity

but by the high cost of energy. One would expect to find

such districts in eastern India where rural electricity grids

are o�en missing and farmers are forced to rely on

expensive diesel to operate their irriga�on pumps.

For reasons discussed above, we excluded Cluster #09

and Cluster #12 districts from the 590 district dataset;

we then selected districts that have more than 12

groundwater structures per 100 hectares of NSA

(na�onal average: 14); less than 20 per cent electric

pumps; and less than 50 per cent irrigated farm holdings.

The cluster of 36 districts thus formed is Cluster #02.

The districts in this cluster can benefit most through

interven�ons that ensure a reasonably priced and

reliable energy source for irriga�on.


35

Figure A.1: Cluster #01 (112 Districts)


Cluster #03: Groundwater Surplus; High Pump Density; Type II Irriga�on Constrained by Inadequate

Electricity Supply (24)

Like in the case of Cluster #02, there are districts in

peninsular India that have high density of groundwater

structures and the poten�al to further develop

groundwater (Type II) irriga�on but less than 50 per cent

of their farm holdings are irrigated. These districts are

constrained due to inadequate hours of electricity supply

or due to the poor and erra�c farm power delivery

regime.

As earlier, we begin by removing mountain and urban

districts (Clusters #09 and #12) . We then selected

districts that have more than 12 groundwater structures

per 100 hectares of NSA); more than 80 per cent

electric pumps; and less than 50 per cent irrigated farm

holdings. The cluster of 24 districts thus formed is

Cluster #03. These districts would immensely benefit if

the rural power supply environment was to improve or if

they had access to be�er quality and quan�ty of farm

power.

Cluster #04: Groundwater Deficit Alluvial Districts (103)

Several districts in the western Indo-Gange�c basin are

using deep, fossil groundwater. These districts are

characterised by low to medium rainfall, free or highly

subsidized farm power supply, moderate to high density

of deep tubewells and nega�ve or near-nega�ve

groundwater balance.


districts (Clusters #09 and #12) . We then selected

districts that have more than 80 per cent groundwater

development. From these, we select alluvial districts in

the north and north-western states of Punjab, Haryana,

western UP, Rajasthan, MP and Gujarat. The cluster of

103 districts so formed is Cluster #04. Any Type II

irriga�on development in these districts will lead to

further groundwater deple�on. Thus, the focus of

interven�ons here needs to be on improving water use

efficiency and making groundwater irriga�on more

sustainable.


36



Cluster #05: Groundwater Deficit hard-rock Districts (27)

Like in Cluster #04, there are similarly characterised

districts in hard-rock districts of peninsular India too that

have nega�ve groundwater balance.


districts (Clusters #09 and #12) . We then select districts

that have more than 80 per cent groundwater

development. From these, we select hard rock districts in

the peninsular Indian states of Maharashtra, Andhra

Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The cluster of 27

districts so formed is Cluster #05. The focus of

interven�ons here too needs to be sustainable

groundwater management.

Cluster #06: Districts with Dense MMM Network (114)

As we discussed, much of India's public irriga�on

investments have gone in crea�ng Type I irriga�on

infrastructure. Type I irriga�on is concentrated in small

pockets of canal command area and there are very few

districts outside Punjab and Haryana where more than

50 per cent of the farm holdings receive canal irriga�on.

In order to capture districts with dense network of

MMM network, we begin by removing mountain and

urban districts (Clusters #09 and #12). We then select

districts that have more than 20 per cent farm holdings

receiving canal irriga�on. The cluster of 114 districts

thus formed is Cluster #06. These districts have immense

scope for improving the gap between IPC and IPU as

well as interven�ons that would improve conjunc�ve

management of surface and groundwater resources.


37



Cluster #07: Districts with High Density of Irriga�on Tanks and WHS (161)

Peninsular India is well-known for its dense network of

cascading irriga�on tanks. The combined culturable

command area (CCA) of India's irriga�on tanks adds up

to nearly 7 mha; of these, nearly 6 mha is concentrated

in 150 districts.


districts (Clusters #09 and #12). We then arranged the

districts in descending order of tank CCA and selected

the top 150 districts. To these, we added the districts of

Kerala that were not already included in the top 150. We

did so because Kerala has a dense network of mul�-

purpose ponds and village water bodies that are not

designated specifically for irriga�on. The cluster of 161

districts thus formed is Cluster #07. These districts have

immense poten�al for interven�ons to improve tank-

groundwater conjunc�ve management.

Cluster #08: Districts with Class I and II Towns

India already has more than 50 million+ ci�es and rapidly

urbanizing. As villages become towns; and towns turn

into ci�es, India's wastewater genera�on – already

es�mated to be around 15 BCM will con�nue to grow.

Wastewater irriga�on is already happening by default on

a large scale and millions of farmers are benefi�ng from

nutrient-rich, reliable supplies. With minimal, smart

investments, it is possible to convert municipal

wastewater into a nutrient-rich, year-round reliable

source of irriga�on for peri-urban farms.

It is difficult to quan�fy the poten�al for wastewater

irriga�on at the district level; hence, we do not define

Cluster #08 by selec�ng specific districts.


38

Figure A.8: Cluster #08 Districts having poten�al for WW use (175)


Cluster #09: Hill Districts in Eastern and Western Himalayas (100)

India's mountain geographies have a unique agro-

ecosystem characterised by tradi�onal water

management prac�ces, decentralized water harves�ng,

diversion-based irriga�on and community management

of land and water resources including springs and water

bodies. These regions, especially in eastern and

peninsular India have high value planta�on agriculture

that is mostly dependent on rain water but requires

some irriga�on in cri�cal moisture stress period.

We iden�fy the districts in this cluster by including the

en�re hill states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,

U�arakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,

Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. To these, we

add 3 hill districts in Assam (Chachr, N.C Hills and Karbi

Anglong), Darjeeling (West Bengal), Idukki and Wayanad

(Kerala) and Coorg (Karnataka). The cluster of 100

districts thus formed is Cluster #09.

Cluster #10: Districts with High Irriga�on Incidence and High Produc�vity (54)

Taking Type I and Type II irriga�on together, there are

only about 150 districts in India where more than 70 per

cent of the farm holdings are irrigated.

We define Cluster #10 as the group of 54 such districts

where more than 70 per cent farm holdings are irrigated

and where agricultural produc�vity per hectare exceeds

₹ ₹ 50,000 (na�onal average: 27,522).


39



Cluster #11: Districts with High Irriga�on Incidence but Low Produc�vity (41)

Similarly, there are about 40 districts where agricultural

produc�vity per hectare is low despite high incidence of

irriga�on. These districts are unlikely to improve their

agricultural produc�vity by adding more farm holdings

under irriga�on but may benefit from other development

programs.

Like in Cluster #10, for Cluster #11, we select districts

with more than 70 per cent irrigated farm holdings but

agricultural produc�vity per hectare less than 30,000 ₹

(na�onal average: 27,522).₹

Cluster #12: Urban and UT Districts (25)

Finally, we classify 25 urban districts, islands and union territories under Cluster #12. These districts have li�le or no

agriculture and agriculture and irriga�on data for these districts is either missing or very patchy.


40


Pa

ram

ete

r

Clu

ste

r #

01

Clu

ste

r #

02

Clu

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r #

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09

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11

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rin

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rite

ria

Irr_

H <

30

%

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9

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r_H

< 5

0%

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c_W

< 2

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50

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41

Ab

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20

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77

61

AN

DH

RA

PR

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ES

H

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I

23

6

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0

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0

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41

67

0

64

60

0

0.9

4

43

97

56

6

04

72

38

64

5

71

41

AN

DM

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& N

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78

AN

DM

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46

3

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94

AR

UN

AC

HA

L

CH

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GLA

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9

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33

63

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94

5

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64

0

27

80

0

6

AR

UN

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L

DIB

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GV

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27

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0.4

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52

63

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63

40

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96

00

10

AR

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L

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KA

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85

1

15

39

6

58

94

0

0

AR

UN

AC

HA

L

EA

ST

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29

7 a

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9

0.5

6

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18

70

2

21

53

8

12

66

7

0

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UN

AC

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LOH

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30

9

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6

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70

33

75

4

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16

21

4

62

50

0

15

AR

UN

AC

HA

L

LOW

ER

SU

BA

NS

IRI

31

9

0.7

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68

09

13

76

7

22

42

2

0

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AR

UN

AC

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L

PA

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32

9

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11

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0

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13

68

5

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AR

UN

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TA

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33

9

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82

1

25

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5

31

85

15

00

0

AR

UN

AC

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L

TIR

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34

9

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26

43

81

96

0.2

5

15

22

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16

80

0

4

AR

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AC

HA

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UP

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G

35

9

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93

80

16

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94

35

15

00

0

AR

UN

AC

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UB

AN

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36

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72

14

43

1

15

57

3

15

00

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AR

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ST

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37

9

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11

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60

61

15

00

0


42

Sta

te

Dis

tric

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H

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GW

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Pro

d_H

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kW

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GW

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RU

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CH

AL

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38

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0.5

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92

69

99

69

22

29

6

46

00

0

AS

SA

M

BA

RP

ET

A

39

1 a

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7

0.0

6

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16

41

5

25

07

3

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0

33

17

20

31

27

48

09

17

93

9

AS

SA

M

BO

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AIG

AO

N

40

1 a

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7

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68

1

24

85

6

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0

67

63

5

73

76

15

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58

08

AS

SA

M

CA

CH

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41

9

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3

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80

5

29

72

8

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53

86

47

93

56

12

AS

SA

M

DA

RR

AN

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42

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36

37

2

23

24

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38

33

23

54

19

19

89

38

AS

SA

M

DH

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43

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9

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67

50

6

17

05

05

1

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93

AS

SA

M

DH

UB

RI

44

1 a

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2

0.1

8

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6

14

39

23

95

5

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0

13

43

49

36

67

82

90

17

12

0

AS

SA

M

DIB

RU

GA

RH

45

1

0.0

1

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8

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0

24

93

1

0.0

0

13

94

98

82

09

82

6

50

56

AS

SA

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ALP

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A

46

1

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89

23

26

51

3

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80

75

3

12

47

36

64

52

20

AS

SA

M

GO

LA

GH

AT

47

1

0.0

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19

8

33

59

5

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11

90

46

36

14

45

1

19

27

AS

SA

M

HA

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KA

ND

I

48

1

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0.0

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34

51

5

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50

29

4

30

29

11

12

AS

SA

M

JOR

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T

49

1

0.0

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23

14

29

63

2

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12

02

40

43

48

22

0

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35

AS

SA

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K

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5

0

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7

66

1

2

56

74

0

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1

99

72

1

1

72

10

42

1

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59

9

AS

SA

M

KA

RB

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GLO

NG

5

1

7 a

nd

9

0.0

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2

86

31

2

44

33

0

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1

26

39

9

17

26

65

4

6

AS

SA

M

KA

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GA

NJ

5

2

1

0.0

1 0

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4

65

2

90

37

0

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7

60

35

3

76

57

0

61

AS

SA

M

KO

KR

AJH

AR

5

3

1

0.0

2 0

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0

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3

89

7

25

17

6

0.0

0

86

55

6

24

48

74

8

17

69

AS

SA

M

LA

KH

IMP

UR

5

4

1

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0

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7

20

2

21

88

0

.01

1

00

16

9

23

65

40

4

17

30

AS

SA

M

MA

RIG

AO

N

55

1

0

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0.1

8

0.2

5

23

02

1

96

45

0

.00

9

20

11

1

26

49

60

8

52

19

AS

SA

M

NA

GA

ON

5

6

1

0.0

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0

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1

29

7

31

30

6

0.0

0

23

56

26

9

73

42

4

12

06

9

AS

SA

M

NO

RT

H

CA

CH

ER

HIL

S

57

9

0

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0.0

0

0.1

3

19

70

4

37

26

28

17

1 13

50

0 0

AS

SA

M

SIB

SA

GA

R

58

1

0

.01

0.0

2

0.0

7

22

6

26

68

3

0.0

1

13

68

22

3

00

73

19

2

58

4

AS

SA

M

SO

NIT

PU

R

59

1

0

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0.0

7

0.0

6

46

13

2

64

05

0

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1

65

14

1

39

32

88

1

24

61

AS

SA

M

TIN

SU

KIA

6

0

1

0.0

1 0

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0

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0

2

78

05

0

.01

1

04

71

4

48

01

84

4

28

14

BIH

AR

A

RA

RIA

6

1

11

0

.86

0.8

6

0.3

4

0

17

39

9

0.0

0

20

04

63

2

05

56

60

5

67

62

BIH

AR

A

UR

AN

GA

BA

D_B

6

2

6, 7

an

d 1

1

0.8

0 0

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0

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4

04

91

2

50

23

0

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2

18

18

7

25

07

86

57

1

23

12

BIH

AR

B

AN

KA

6

3

No

ne

0

.57

0.3

9

0.3

7

54

12

2

27

87

0

.00

8

22

95

8

65

31

26

8

02

1

BIH

AR

B

EG

US

AR

AI

6

4

1 a

nd

2

0.2

4 0

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0

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0

4

17

43

0

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6

18

13

4

23

26

59

6

14

75

7

BIH

AR

B

HA

GA

LP

UR

6

5

N

on

e

0

.54

0.4

5

0

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1

6

3

09

44

0

.00

1

28

27

1

1

91

75

51

2

1

18

28

BIH

AR

BH

OJP

UR

66

6 a

nd

11

0.7

3

0.7

4

0.4

5

60

23

14

4

0.0

0

16

75

54

48

22

78

80

23

67

5

BIH

AR

BU

XA

R

67

6

0.6

4

0.6

5

0.3

6

0

23

63

2

0.0

0

10

87

33

21

41

87

42

18

72

3

BIH

AR

DA

RB

HA

NG

A

68

1

0.0

3

0.0

5

0.5

2

0

33

63

9

0.0

0

16

55

34

15

96

55

89

10

77

6

BIH

AR

GA

YA

69

2

0.4

1

0.3

9

0.4

9

11

53

9

20

36

4

0.0

0

21

81

43

56

43

45

05

27

04

8

BIH

AR

GO

PA

LGA

NJ

70

11

0.8

3

0.7

6

0.5

8

12

20

26

17

8

0.0

0

12

81

65

46

62

66

22

38

68

9

BIH

AR

JAM

UI

71

1 a

nd

2

0.2

1

0.2

3

0.3

9

59

14

17

64

0

0.0

0

15

79

27

16

90

87

04

24

71

4

BIH

AR

JEH

AN

AB

AD

72

No

ne

0.5

2

0.4

5

0.5

8

23

0

23

28

8

0.0

0

55

49

6

36

77

05

23

82

22

BIH

AR

KA

IMP

UR

73

6 a

nd

11

0.7

4

0.7

8

0.3

2

59

01

28

53

7

0.0

0

14

83

55

40

42

89

23

20

99

9

BIH

AR

KA

TIH

AR

74

No

ne

0.5

5

0.6

1

0.5

5

0

35

21

5

0.0

0

16

84

57

42

90

44

04

19

65

3

BIH

AR

KH

AG

AR

IA

75

1 a

nd

2

0.2

6

0.3

2

0.4

6

30

39

95

9

0.0

0

95

36

4

25

57

48

76

24

88

6

BIH

AR

KIS

HA

NG

AN

J

76

No

ne

0.4

5

0.2

9

0.2

8

0

0.0

0

97

57

8

15

63

09

17

76

21

BIH

AR

LA

KH

ISA

RA

I

77

No

ne

0.4

1

0.3

8

0.4

3

4

16

77

6

0.0

0

60

39

4

11

37

31

26

68

87

BIH

AR

MA

DH

EP

UR

A

78

1

0.1

7

0.1

9

0.5

7

0

42

90

8

0.0

0

11

46

51

29

26

74

32

66

45


43

Sta

te

Dis

tric

t

S_N

o

Clu

ste

rs

Irr_

H

Irr_

A

GW

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vt

T_C

CA

Pro

d_H

a

Ele

c_W

NS

A

kW

h-e

qu

iv.

GW

SB

IHA

RM

AD

HU

BA

NI

79

6

0.3

8

0.2

9

0.3

4

10

09

18

27

0

0.0

0

21

91

00

22

83

80

98

12

87

9

BIH

AR

MU

NG

ER

80

6

0.5

5

0.4

8

0.2

9

38

69

36

57

0

0.0

0

24

09

2

14

25

44

06

17

88

5

BIH

AR

MU

ZA

FFA

RP

UR

81

No

ne

0.6

3

0.5

4

0.5

6

0

41

42

8

0.0

0

16

76

07

44

04

37

42

84

00

BIH

AR

NA

LAN

DA

82

No

ne

0.9

6

0.9

3

0.6

6

10

2

33

30

3

0.0

0

17

51

56

77

88

16

96

35

34

1

BIH

AR

NA

WA

DA

83

2 a

nd

7

0.4

9

0.3

9

0.4

3

18

27

3

27

16

0

0.0

0

92

54

7

36

62

32

98

35

11

9

BIH

AR

PA

SC

HIM

CH

AM

PA

RA

N

84

6 a

nd

11

0.8

3

0.7

6

0.2

7

23

98

25

11

2

0.0

0

29

60

91

24

08

29

34

16

82

3

BIH

AR

PA

TN

A

85

2

0.3

8

0.3

0

0.5

5

37

35

32

36

7

0.0

0

23

70

96

76

21

08

21

29

93

0

BIH

AR

PU

RA

B C

HA

MP

AR

AN

86

11

0.7

1

0.5

6

0.4

2

4

23

70

8

0.0

0

26

98

15

0

24

32

2

BIH

AR

PU

RN

IA

87

1

0.0

3

0.0

8

0.4

7

0

24

00

8

0.0

0

18

35

64

52

47

61

02

12

62

7

BIH

AR

RO

HTA

S

88

No

ne

0.4

2

0.4

6

0.3

5

90

1

32

32

1

0.0

0

23

29

44

45

17

17

04

58

29

BIH

AR

SA

HA

RS

A

89

2

0.3

1

0.3

3

0.3

8

72

40

02

5

0.0

0

10

18

47

12

60

77

37

31

89

9

BIH

AR

SA

MA

ST

IPU

R

90

1 a

nd

2

0.1

3

0.0

8

0.5

3

24

30

55

4

0.0

0

16

37

83

76

23

20

56

29

50

5

BIH

AR

SA

RA

N

9

1

N

on

e

0

.60

0.5

7

0

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3

39

2

67

90

0

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1

44

37

4

5

88

73

73

3

4

11

5

BIH

AR

SH

EIK

HP

UR

A

92

N

on

e

0.5

9 0

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0

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7

25

0.0

0

44

62

8

95

94

26

7

39

88

BIH

AR

SH

EO

HA

R

93

1

0

0.7

8 0

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0

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0

5

56

82

0

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2

88

19

6

05

81

13

1

04

90

BIH

AR

SIT

AM

AR

HI

9

4

No

ne

0

.53

0.4

5

0.4

6

1

33

04

2

0.0

0

10

73

18

2

07

05

99

8

26

85

7

BIH

AR

SIW

AN

9

5

No

ne

0

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0.4

5

0.5

9

18

9

21

26

1

0.0

0

12

67

19

4

88

13

03

3

94

05

BIH

AR

SU

PA

UL

9

6

2

0.4

9 0

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0

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0

2

26

31

0

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1

13

09

0

25

86

65

46

2

69

33

BIH

AR

VA

ISH

AL

I

97

1

0

0.7

3 0

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0

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3

84

5

30

03

0

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1

12

09

6

35

70

25

24

1

66

77

CH

AN

DIG

AR

H

CH

AN

DIG

AR

H

98

1

2

0.9

8 0

.97

0

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0

0.9

0

89

2

0

91

CH

HA

TT

ISG

AR

H

BA

ST

AR

9

9

1 a

nd

7

0.0

4 0

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0

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1

75

18

1

19

70

0

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3

43

59

9

10

12

08

72

6

71

7

CH

HA

TT

ISG

AR

H

BIL

AS

PU

R_C

1

00

6

an

d 7

0

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0.3

9

0.4

7

20

27

0

23

52

4

0.3

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56

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Recent IWMI-Tata Publica�ons

These Highlights can be downloaded from h�p://iwmi-tata.blogspot.in

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h�p://iwmi-tata.blogspot.com

About IWMI-Tata Water Policy Program

Documents

IWMI-TATA POLICY PAPER...This policy paper highlights several inﬁrmies with the current strategy as well as implementaon roadmap for PMKSY. 1. The promise of Har Khet Ko Pani had