Globale Produktionsnetzwerke und „Prekäres Upgrading“ in der Elektronikindustrie in

Mittel- und Osteuropa (MOE)

Die Beispiele Ungarn und Rumänien

Leonhard Plank/Cornelia StaritzRV Globale Güterketten, Universität Wien, SS2010

Überblick

I. ForschungsansatzII. Globale ElektronikindustrieIII. MOE in der Globalen ElektronikindustrieIV. Upgrading in Ungarn und RumänienV. Fazit

I. Forschungsansatz

• Ketten-/Netzwerk-Ansätze– Global Commodity Chains (Gereffi/Koreniewicz 1994); Global

Value Chains (Gereffi/Humphrey/Sturgeon 2001); Global Production Networks (Henderson/Dicken/Hess/Coe 2002)

• Gewählter Zugang: Adaptierter GPN-Ansatz– Berücksichtigung von Nicht-Firmen Akteuren sowie regulativen

und institutionellen Kontexten– Breitere Konzeption von Industrial Upgrading– Berücksichtigung von ArbeiterInnen & Social Upgrading

I. ForschungsansatzII. Globale ElektronikindustrieIII. MOE in der Globalen ElektronikindustrieIV. Upgrading in Ungarn und RumänienV. Fazit

II. Globale Elektronikindustrie

• Elektronik-Industrie– Hardware/Software/Services– Hardware-Produkte: iPod, Laptop, Handys, LCD-TV

• Globaler Handel– Rapider Anstieg seit den 1980ern; Dynamischster Sektor im

globalen Handel

• Produktionsprozess– ...in organisatorisch fragmentierten und geographisch breit

gestreuten GPNs

• Zunehmende Integration von Entwicklungs-/ Transformationsländern in GPNs

Modularisierung der Value Chain

Vertikal Integrierte Computer-Industrie (ca. 1980)

Vertikal Spezialisierte Computer-Industrie (ca. 1995)

Main market segments Product examples Lead firm examples1) Computers Enterprise computing systems, personal

computers (desktop, notebook, netbook), embedded computers, etc.

IBM, Fujitsu, Siemens, Hewlett Packard, Dell, Apple, Acer, Lenovo, etc.

2) Computer peripherals & other office equipment

Printers, fax machines, copiers, scanners, etc.

Hewlett Packard, Xerox, Epson, Kodak, Cannon, Lexmark, Acer, Fujitsu, Sharp, etc.

3) Consumer electronics Game consoles, television, home audio & video, portable audio & video, mobile phone handets, musical equipment, toys, etc.

Toshiba, NEC, Vizio, Sony, Sharp Apple, Nintendo, Microsoft, Samsung, LG, NEC, Matsushita, Hitachi, Microsoft, HTC, Philips, etc.

4) Server & storage devices

Portable, internal, external, backup systems, storage services, etc.

Toshiba, Western Digital, EMC, NetApp, Hewlett Packard, Hitachi, Seagate, Maxtor, LeCie, Quantum, etc.

5) Networking Public telecommunications, private communications networks, Internet, mobile phone infrastructure, etc.

Alcatel, Nortel, Cisco, Motorola, Juniper, Huawei, Ericsson, Nokia, Tellabs, etc.

6) Automotive electronics Entertainment, communication, vehicle control (braking, acceleration, traction, suspension), navigation, etc.

TomTom, Garmin, Clarion, Toyota, General Motors, Renault, Bosch, Siemens, etc.

7) Medical electronics Consumer medical, diagnostics & testing, imaging, telemedicine, meters & monitoring, implants, fitness, etc.

General Electric, Philips, Medtronic, Varian, etc.

8) Industrial electronics Security & surveillance, factory automation, building automation, military systems, aircraft, aerospace, banking & ATM, transportation, etc.

Diebold, Siemens, Rockwell, Philips, Omron, Dover, etc.

9) Military & aerospace electronics

Ground combat systems, aircraft, sea-based systems, eavesdropping and surveillance, satellites, missile guidance & intercept, etc.

L-3 Communications, Lockheed Martin, Boeing, BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman, General Dynamics, EADS, L-3 Communications, Finmeccanica, United Technologies, etc.

Source: Sturgeon/Kawakami (2010) Global Value Chains in the Electronics Industry. In: Cattaneo, O./Gereffi, G./Staritz, C. (eds.): Global Value Chains in a Post-Crisis World. A Development Perspective. Washington: World Bank.

Akteure in der Unternehmenssphäre

• Lead firms bzw. Original Brand Manufacturer (OBM)• Kontraktfertiger

– Original Design Manufacturer (ODM)– Contract Electronics Manufacturer (CEM) bzw. Electronics

Manufacturing Services firms (EMS)

• Zulieferer

Source: ILO (2007) The production of electronic components for the IT industries: Changing labour force requirements in a global economy. Geneva: ILO.

Top Kontraktfertiger

Top 5 Taiwan-based CMs Primary service 2009 Revenue (US$ Millions)Foxconn/Hon Hai EMS 44,065Quanta Computer ODM 23,265Compal Electronics ODM 19,424Wistron ODM 16,226Inventec ODM 12,349Top 5 North America-based CMsFlextronics (USA & Singapore) EMS 30,949Jabil Circuit (USA) EMS 11,685Celestica (Canada) EMS 6,092Sanmina-SCI (USA) EMS 5,177Benchmark Electronics (USA) EMS 2,089Top 5 CMs in other locationsVenture (Singapore) EMS 2.428Elcoteq (Luxembourg) EMS 2,090SIIX (Japan) EMS 1,360Beyonics (Singapore) EMS 1,120Zollner Elektronik (Germany) EMS 970

Source: Sturgeon/Kawakami (2010) Global Value Chains in the Electronics Industry. In: Cattaneo, O./Gereffi, G./Staritz, C. (eds.): Global Value Chains in a Post-Crisis World. A Development Perspective. Washington: World Bank.

Institutionelle und Regulative Kontexte

• FDI-Politik– Export-Zonen & ähnliche Instrumente: Industrial Free Trade

Zones in Ungarn– Steuervergünstigungen & andere Incentives– Special Deals: Dell in Lodz (PL), Nokia in Cluj (RO)

• Handelsliberalisierung– Abschluss des Information Technology Agreement im Rahmen

der WTO (Singapur, 1996)• Aktuelles Streitfall: US/Japan/Taiwan vs. EU (6-14% Zölle auf

Multifunktionsdrucker, TV Set-Top Boxen, LCD)

– Regionale Handelsabkommen

INCENTIVES PROPOSED DURING EU PRE-ACCESSION PERIOD BY CENTRAL EUROPEAN COUNTRIES  

COUNTRIES Hungary Poland Czech Rep Slovakia

 Incentives 10 years corporate tax 10 first years Full 10 years Full corporate 10 years corporate Tax

  exemption corporate tax exemption tax exemption exemption

  5 years local tax    

  exemption      

         

  Subsidies Economic Subsidies for training: Subsidies for training:  

  develop. negotiable 50 % of the cost  

         

  Subsidies for Job Subsidies for job Subsidies for job Subsidies for job

  creation: creation: creation: creation:

  max. USD 350.000 negotiable USD 4750 per job USD 3200 per job

         

Imported raw materials Duty and VAT suspension Duty and VAT suspension Duty and VAT suspension Duty and VAT suspension

and components Max duration for reexport Max duration for reexport Max duration for reexport Max duration for reexport

  2 years 2 years 2 years 2 years

       

EquipmentDuty free and VAT free import of new machinery equipment

Duty free and VAT free import of new machinery equipment

Duty free and VAT free import of new machinery equipment

Duty free and VAT free import of new machinery equipment

         

Industrial Parks/ yes on request Yes on request Yes on request yes on request

customs free zones        

Customs office on site yes yes yes yes

         

Source: Jabil Electronics, Electronics Manufacturing Investment in Ukraine, Presentation, 7. Juli 2005, Kiew, Ukraine

Geographie der Globalen Elektronikindustrie

• Global-Regionale Arbeitsteilung– Globale Zulieferer: Asien (China)– Regionale Zulieferer: Mexiko, Mittel- und Osteuropa

North America Asia

Mexico

Lead firms

(design, marketing, and sales)

Contract manufacturer

(circuit board and final assembly)

Component and equipment suppliersFinished products

Contract manufacturer (global headquarters, purchasing, circuit board and final assy.)

Contract mfg. (purchasing, circuit board and final assy.)

Orders, designs, bill

of materials

Components, equipment

Component

specs.

I. ForschungsansatzII. Globale ElektronikindustrieIII. MOE in der Globalen ElektronikindustrieIV. Upgrading in Ungarn und RumänienV. Fazit

  1995 2000 2003 2005 2007

Total Imports (SITC 75, 76, 776), in US$

103.208.508.550 159.632.772.432 161.264.972.494 224.326.015.439 270.156.983.440

1 USA 30,28% USA 25,09% China 19,11% China 27,73% China 32,98%

2 Japan 22,53% Japan 15,82% USA 16,59% USA 12,48% USA 11,92%

3 Singapore 8,77% China 8,55% Japan 13,02% Japan 10,46% Japan 8,83%

4 Other Asia, nes 7,00% Other Asia, nes 8,23% Other Asia, nes 7,84% Rep. of Korea 7,73% Rep. of Korea 6,85%

5 Malaysia 5,35% Singapore 6,65% Rep. of Korea 6,39% Other Asia, nes 5,88% Other Asia, nes 5,15%

6 Rep. of Korea 4,55% Rep. of Korea 6,34% Singapore 6,26% Malaysia 5,05% Malaysia 4,87%

7 China 4,35% Malaysia 5,52% Malaysia 6,04% Singapore 5,00% Hungary 4,35%

8 Special Cat. 2,49% Special Cat. 3,49% Hungary 4,03% Hungary 4,89% Czech Rep. 3,75%

9 Hong Kong 2,41% Hungary 3,14% Philippines 2,92% Czech Rep. 2,65% Singapore 3,45%

10 Thailand 2,02% Philippines 2,55% Czech Rep. 2,29% Philippines 2,51% Slovakia 2,30%

11 Canada 1,38% Thailand 2,13% Thailand 2,14% Hong Kong 2,03% Thailand 2,20%

12 Switzerland 1,24% Hong Kong 2,10% Hong Kong 1,98% Thailand 2,01% Philippines 1,83%

13 Europe EU, nes 0,93% Canada 1,80% Poland 1,15% Turkey 1,29% Poland 1,52%

14 Philippines 0,90% Switzerland 1,02% Turkey 1,04% Costa Rica 1,16% Hong Kong 1,39%

15 Areas, nes 0,65% Israel 0,99% Indonesia 0,97% UAE 1,04% Turkey 0,89%

16 Malta 0,64% Indonesia 0,82% Costa Rica 0,97% Poland 0,93% Costa Rica 0,88%

17 Norway 0,57% Mexico 0,69% Canada 0,93% Switzerland 0,90% Special Cat. 0,79%

18 Hungary 0,57% Estonia 0,69% Switzerland 0,87% Slovakia 0,89% Canada 0,79%

19 Israel 0,56% Poland 0,56% Mexico 0,86% Canada 0,80% Switzerland 0,74%

20 Indonesia 0,39% Costa Rica 0,55% Special Cat. 0,61% Indonesia 0,78% Mexico 0,73%

             

    1,20%   5,33%   8,74%   9,97%   10,53%

Source: UN Comtrade Database, Electronics Imports into EU-15 from the World.

Elektronik-Produktion in MOE

Source: Yearbook of World Electronics Data 2009/2010, Reed Electronics Research

MOE in der Globalen Elektronikindustrie

• Assembly-Plattform für EU-15– Beispiel Ungarn: Handelsbilanzdefizit-/überschuss bei

Komponenten/Endprodukten „High-Tech“-Exports???

• Dominiert durch ausländische TNCs - 2 Phasen seit 1990ern– Expansion

• Lead firms/OBMs (ab Anfang der 1990er)• Contract Manufacturers (ab Mitte 1990er)

– Restrukturierung und verschärfter Verlagerungsdruck (ab 2001)

Dominanz ausländischer TNCs: Ungarn

Source: Sass, Magdolna (2005) The ICT manufacturing sector in Hungary. Budapest: Institute of Economics of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences

I. ForschungsansatzII. Globale ElektronikindustrieIII. MOE in der Globalen ElektronikindustrieIV. Upgrading in Ungarn und RumänienV. Fazit

Elektroniksektor in Ungarn und Rumänien

• Exporte– Ungarn: Top Exporter in EU-15; Rumänien: Newcomer– Export-Fokus auf EU-Markt

• Elektronik-Produktion– Ungarn: ca. 27% der Fertigungs-Industrie in HU (2007)– Rumänien: ca. 6% der Fertigungs-Industrie in RO (2007)

• Beschäftigungszahlen– Ungarn: ca. 70.000 Personen (2007)– Rumänien: ca. 28.000 Personen (2007)

Industrial und Social Upgrading

• Industrial Upgrading– Typologie von Humphrey/Schmitz (2002)

• a) Process (b) Product (c) Functional (d) Inter-Chain Upgrading

– Embeddedness bzw. Effekte auf lokale Ökonomie• Internal vs. External Upgrading

• Social Upgrading– ICFTU „Basic Code of Labour Practice“

• 8 Arbeitsstandards (inklusive 4 ILO Kernarbeitsnormen)

ICFTU ‘Basic Code of Labour Practice’

• no forced or bonded labour • no discrimination in employment• no child labour• freedom of association and the right to collective

bargaining• right to a living wage• no excessive working time• occupational health and safety measures• right to the establishment of an employment

relationship.

Industrial Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien

• Internal Industrial Upgrading– Modernisierung des Sektors (Process, Product and Functional

Upgrading)

• External Industrial Upgrading– Lokale Verflechtungen (linkages)

• Fehlende backward linkages • Erklärung: „absorptive capacity“ vs. etablierte Zulieferstruktur

(approved vendor list).

– Spill-Overs & potentielle Channels• Human-Kapital (skilled vs. un/semi-skilled)• Demonstrations-Effekte• Backward/Forward Linkages

Social Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien

• Polarisierung der Beschäftigten– Indirekte: Management, techn. Angestellte– Direkte: ArbeiterInnen an Fertigungsstraßen

• Arbeitsstandards– Löhne– Arbeitszeiten– Flexible Beschäftigungsformen– Gewerkschaftsrechte

I. ForschungsansatzII. Globale ElektronikindustrieIII. MOE in der Globalen ElektronikindustrieIV. Upgrading in Ungarn und RumänienV. Fazit

Fazit

• Internal Industrial Upgrading, aber beschränktes external Industrial Upgrading

• Beschränktes Social Upgrading …im Kontext der besonderen Rolle von ArbeiterInnen im Sektor („McDonalds“-Approach)

• Oberflächliche Integration setzt Standorte und ArbeiterInnen Verlagerungsdruck bzw. Standortstrategien von OBMs/CMs aus

„Prekäres“ Upgrading

Danke

Elektronik GPN

A McDonald´s Approach (Lüthje 2002)

• ‘Work without a product’– As CEM-plants do not manufacture their ‘own’ products, quality management and workplace

control has to be refocused on customer orientation and manufacturing has to be organized as ‘service work’.

• Relatively low wages with high variable proportions– As most CEM-plants are located in low-cost areas, manufacturing wages and benefits are

rather modest, and bonus-oriented pay-systems (including stock ownership and options) have to ensure customer orientation.

• Labour flexibility– The constant and very rapid change in production volumes is managed by an extensive use of

various kinds of flexible employment.• Quality management based on restricted teamwork

– In most plants there is an ideology of ‘team orientation’, but no formal structure of work groups etc., as known from team concepts in other industries.

• Heavy reliance on women and minority workers– As in most areas of electronics manufacturing, the majority of the manufacturing workforce is

female. In the U.S., in particular in California, the workforce is mainly recruited from ethnic minorities in disadvantaged labour market positions.