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References

1. C.A Bayly writes in Imperial Meridian: the BritishEmpire and the World 1780-1830,London, 1989,p. 48;'Emerging from out of the brief Afghan Empire of theDurranis, magnates from tribal backgrounds in Sindh(the Talpur emirs) had built up a viable political systemby the 1790s' thus signalling a considerable shift incurrent historio-graphical views on pre-colonial Sind.

2. For an altogether favourable account of Napier, see H.T. Lambrick, Sir Charles Napier and Sind, Oxford,1952.

3. See C. L. Mariwalla, History of the Commerece of Sind(From Early Times to 1526AD), Jamshoro, 1981,p. 16.

4. See Wink, Al Hind, vol. I, p. 51: 'The desire to expandtraffic along the Persian Gulf route was... the mainmotivation for the conquest of Sind.' The suppressionof piracy in particular was a crucial objective for theMuslim conquerors.

5. Ibid., p. 181.6. Ibid., p. 52.7. On Debal, see S. Q. Fatimi, 'The Twin Ports of Daybul'

in H. Khuhro (ed.) Sind Through the Centuries,Karachi, 1981,pp. 97-105

8. Ibn Battuta, Voyages, translated from the Arabic by C,Defremery and B. R. Sanguinetti, Paris, 1854, p. 112.He calls 'Lahary' 'une belle place situee sur le rivagede I'ocean' and mentions that 'elle possede un grandport, ou abordent des gens du Yaman, du Fars' .

9. Wink, Al Hind, p. 173.10.Allen, 'The Indian Merchant Community of Masqat'.11. See S. Subrahmanyam, 'The Portuguese, Thatta and the

External Trade of Sind, 1515-1635', Revista deCuitura, nos. 13-14, 1991,pp. 48-58.

82

12. See. S P. Chablani, Economic Conditions in Sind 1592,to 1843, Bombay, 1951,p. 52.

13.A. Hamilton, A New Account of the East Indies,London, 1744, quoted in A. Duarte, A History ofBritish Relations with Sind, Karachi, 1976,p. 39.

14.Allen, 'The Indian Merchant Community of Masqat'.15. See A Forgotten Chapter of Indian History as

Described in the Memoirs of Seth Naomal Hotchand, C.S. I Of Karachi 1804-1878, Karachi, 1982 (15t·edn,Exeter, 1915) p. 36. These memoirs, which werewritten in Sindhi by Seth Naomal himself, weretranslated into English by his grandson, Rao BahadurAlumal Trikamdas Bhojwani, and 'edited' by Sir H.Evan M. James, who was commissioner in Sind in1891-9, and had them privately published. Thisdocument, in spite of having been translated and'edited' is an extraordinary and in many ways uniquesource on the world of the Hindu banias of Sind.

16.MiRodinson, Islam et Capitalisme,Paris, 1966.17. See Dale, Indian Merchants and Eurasian Trade, p.

128.18. J.1. L. Gommans, The Rise of the Indo-Afghan Empire,

1710-1780, Leiden, 1995.19. See Allen, 'The Indian Merchant Community of

Masqat'20. See A. B. Advani, 'Hyderabad: a Brief Historical

Sketch', Sindhian world, vol. 1, no. 6, 1940, pp. 356-69.

21. On the Malwa opium trade, see, for an overview, D. F.Owen, British Opium Policy in China and India, NewHaven, CT, 1934, pp. 80-112, Parliamentary Papers,House of Commons, 1831-32, vol. VI, Appendices tothe reports of the Committee on the East IndiaCompany affairs, Appendix IV, 'Abstract ofcorrespondence regarding Malwa opium, commencingfrom the Year 1818 to the Year 1828', pp. 26-59, Royal

83

Commission on Opium, 1894-1895, vol. VII, FinalReport, part II, Historical Appendices, London, 1895,'Appendix B, Historical Memorandum, by R. M. Dane'pp. 28-63. For details of the route, see in particularlOR, Bengal Board of Revenue (Miscellaneous)Proceedings, Opium, Consultation 8A, 8 March 1824,enclosing letter from opim agent in Malwa to Board ofRevenue, 17 February 1824, enclosing Memorandumrespecting the export of opium to Pahlie and Demaun'and Consultation 18, 22 April 1824, from ibid.,enclosing information collected at Pali by a nativeinformant.

22. Statistics bearing on opium exports to China fromDaman between 1820-1and 1828-9 show widespreadfluctuations, a peak being reached in 1827-8 with aquantity of almost 4,000 chests. See C. Pinto, Tradeand Finance in Portuguese India: a Study of thePortuguese Country Trade 1770-1840, Delhi, 1994,Table 5.2, p. 132.

23. See J. Y. Wong, 'British Annexation of Sind in 1843;an Economic Perspective' Modern Asian Studies, vol.31, no. 2, 1997, pp. 225-44. That some correlationexisted between British opium policy on the one handand the decision to annex Sind seems indubitable, but itdoes not prove that the desire to close the Sind route toMalwa opium was the main motive of the annexation.

24. See enclosure 8 B. 'Memorandum respecting the exportof opium to Pahlie and Demaun' in opium agent inMalwa to Board of Revenue, Customs and Salt(Opium), 17 February 1824, Consultation no. 8 A, 9March 1824, Bengal Board of Revenue (Miscellaneous)Proceedings, Opium, 9 March to 22 June 1824, andenclosure in ibid. to ibid., 22 April 1824, Consultationno. 18, ibid.

25. Native agent in Sind to Colonel H. Pottinger, 27November 1830, trans, by A. Burnes, assistant resident,

84

20 December 1830, Bombay Revenue Proceedings,December 1830,no. 135.

26. A Burnes, 'On the Commerce of Hyderabad and LowerSind', in Reports and Papers, Political, Geographicaland Commercial Submitted to Government by SirAlexander Burnes, Lieutenant Leech, Dr Lord andLieutenant Wood Employed on Mission in the years1835-36-37 in scinde, Afghanistan and AdjacentCountries, Calcutta, 1839,p. 21.

27. In 1848, Captain Rathbone, the magistrate ofHyderabad, answering queries regarding trade in theHyderabad Collectorate, stated: 'The Hyderabadmerchants ... had till within a year or two of theconquest a large opium trade across from Pali, whichhas been stopped under orders conveyed from theSupreme Government. Enclosed in minute of SirGeorge Clark, 24 April 1848. Parliamentary Papers(House of Commons 1854, East India (Scinde), p. 293.

28. 'Report on the trade between Shikarpur and Marwar',Reports and Papers, Commercial, pp. 68-70. Leechgives the names of six Shikarpuri merchants engaged inthe trade with a total capital of Rs 340,000 while heinforms us that trade in the major commodities,assafoetida and saffron, is but a small share of what itwas two decades earlier, one of the major reasons forthe decline being the growing inroads of British goodsin the markets of Rajputana.

29. SeeMemoirs of Seth Naomal Hotchand, pp. 41-5.30. J. Burnes, A Narrative of a Visit to the Court of Sinde,

Edinburgh, 1831, 2nd edn, (I" edn, Bombay, 1829), p.76.

31. The mir is supposed to have exclaimed, in the face ofevidence of treachery by a Hindu servant: 'You' do notknow the Hindus of Sinde; they are all blackguards andrascals'. Ibid., p. 86.

85

32. F. B. Eastwick A Glance at Sind before Napier or DryLeaves from Young Egypt, Karachi, 1973, reprint (lstedn, London, 1849),pp. 214-15.

33. Memoirs of Seth Naomal, p. 68.34. See L. M. M. Thakurdas, 'Hindus and Talpurs of Sind', .

Modern Review, vol. 51, 1932,pp. 265-72.35:.See, however, B. M. Advani, Sindh-je-Hindus-je-Tarikh

(History of Sindh Hindus) (in Sindhi) Hyderabad.36. Gazetteer of the Province of Sind, compiled by E. H.

Aitken, Karachi, 1907.37. U.T. Thakur, Sindhi Culture,Bombay, 1959.38. Calculated from Appendix A, 'Comparative Tables

showing the number and distribution of various Hinducastes (1891 to 1931) in Sind' in ibid., pp. 207-33.

39. For an interesting although controversial analysis ofthis question, centered on the Punjab, see H. Oberoi,The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture,Identity and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition, Delhi,1994. To the best of my knowledge, no study has beendone of the history of Sikhism in Sind.

40. According to the 1881 Census, there were in Sind 126,976 Sikhs (including 68, 655 in Shikarpur distric and42,940 in Hyderabad district). as against 305, 079Hindus (93,341 in Shikarpur and 89, 114 inHyderabad), suggesting that he majority of Lohanas inShikarpur district and large minority in Hyderabaddistrict returned themselves as Sikhs. Census of India,1881, Operations and Results in the Presidency ofBombay including Sind, J. A. Baines, vol. II, Tables,Bombay, 1882,Table III, pp. 3-6. However, by the timeof the 1891 Census, the situation had been totally

. reversed, as only 720 Sikhs were enumerated in thewhole of Sind, as against 567,536 Hindus. Census ofIndia, 1891, vol. VIII,Bombay and its Feudatories, partII, Imperial Tables,W. W. Drew, bombay, 1892, TableVI, pp. 26-7. Commenting on this puzzling change, the

86

census commissioner attributed it to the fact that in the1891 Census 'religion' and 'sect' were distinctcategories, but that only the former had been taken intoaccount. He surmised that most of those who hadpreviously enumerated themselves as Sikhs returnedthemselves in 1891 as of Hindu religion and Sikh sect,which explained that they figured under the heading'Hindus'. Census of India, 1891, vol. VIII, part I,Report, W. W. Drew, Bombay, 1892, p. 40.

41. On Uderolal or Lal Udero, see 'Something about LalUdero', in Sigma (Dayaram Gidumal) Something aboutSind, Karachi, 1882, pp. 27-31.

42. On the role of the sufi pirs in Sindhi Islam, see S. F. D.Ansari, Sufi Saints and State Power: the Pirs of Sind,1843-1947, Cambridge, 1992, pp. 19-35. Ansarimentions, p. 20, that Suhrawardi sufis, who were thefirst to be active in Sind, acquired Hindu followers 'inpart as a result of the religious tolerance engendered bytheir belief in the doctrine of wahdat-al-wujud' (Unityof Being). Although this doctrine was later attacked bythe Naqshbandis, sufis in Sind continued to acceptHindu disciples. The most influential of the pirs, the PirPagaro Sibghatullah Shah II (1921-43) systematicallytried to win the trust of local Hindus by such gestures asthe organization of a shudhhi ceremony for a Hinduwho had converted to Islam and wished to bereadmitted to his original faith. Mentioned in ibid., pp.137-8.

43. Hari P. Vaswani, in his biography of his father SadhuT.L. Vaswani, who was the main spiritual guide ofSindhi Hindus in the twentieth century, mentions that'Hindus in Sind participated in the Muharram, thefestival of the Muslims. They considered the tabut to beso very holy that they brought their new-born babes toit to be blessed. They also covered the tabut with their

87

kerchiefs as a mark of respect and reverence.' H.P.Vaswani, A Saint of Modern India, Poona, 1975,p. 4.

44. See N. Boreham, 'Decolonisation and ProvincialMuslim Politics: Sindh, 1937-47', South Asia, newseries, vol. 16,no.1, 1993,pp. 53-72.

45. See S. Anand, National Integration of Sindhis, Delhi,1996, in particular ch. 2, 'Partition and Mass Exodus',pp.22-60.

46. The most significant episode of communal violence inSind occurred in 1939 around the so-called Manzilgahagitation in Sukkur. See H. Khuhro, 'MasjidManzilgah, 1939-40: Test Case for Hindu-MuslimRelations in Sind', Modern Asian Studies, vol. 32, no.1,1998,pp. 49-89

47. R. F. Burton, Sindh and the Races that Inhabit theValley of the Indus, with Notices of the Topography andHistory of the Province, London, 1851, in particularchapter 12, 'The Hindoos ofSindh', pp. 309-37.

48. R. F. Burton, Sindh Revisited, London, 1877, inParticular vol. I, chapter 14, significantly entitled 'TheHindus of Sind- their Rascality and theirPhiloprogenitiveness', pp.269-95, from where I extractthis passage about the banias, pp. 283-4: 'he then takeshis place in the shop, where, if you please, we shall

'"leave him to cheat and haggle, to spoil and adulterate,and to become as speedily rich by the practice of asmuch conventional and commercial rascality, barelywithin the limits of actual felony, as he can pass offupon the world' .

49. See R. D. Choksey, The Story of Sind (An EconomicSurvey), 1843-1933, Poona, 1983,pp. 130-1.

50. D. Cheesman, Landlord Power and Rural Indebtednessin Colonial Sind 1865-1901, London, 1997. See also H.Khuhro, The Making of Modern Sind: British Policyand Social Change in the Nineteenth Century, Karachi,1978. .

88

51. See N. Bhattacharya, 'Lenders and Debtors: PunjabCountryside, 1880-1940', Studies in History, newseries, vol. 1, no. 2, 1985, pp. 305-42.

52. See Cheesman, Landlord Power, p. 164.53. For some instances, see ibid., pp. 186-8.54. According to the Gazetteer of the Province of Sind, p.

331, the average price of bajra, the staple grain crop inSind, went up from Rs 1-1-10 per maund during 1844-50 to Rs 2-7-0 in 1896-1905.

55. On the growth of the port of Karachi and itsconnections with the Punjab, see A. F. Baillie,Kurrachee (Karachi), Past, Present and Future,London, 1890, and 1. Banga, 'Karachi and itsHinterland under Colonial Rule', in 1. Banga (ed.),Ports and their Hinterlands in India (1700-1950),Delhi, 1992, pp. 337-58.

56. In the second half of the nineteenth century it wasBombay revenue- which largely paid for theconstruction of a port which served primarily thePunjab. For Punjab finances it was a very goodoperation, and it explains why Punjab officials werenever particularly keen to have Sind become part oftheir province. In 1903, when Sir Denzil Ibbetson,having been made lieutenant-governor of the Punjab,tried to have his domain (which had been diminished bythe separation of the North-West Frontier Province in1901) increased by the inclusion of Sind, Lord Curzon,whose grasp of interprovincial financial transfers wasbetter than Ibbetson' s quashed his attempt. See P.Mahto, 'The Separation of Sind from BombayPresidency' in M. Y. Mughul (ed.), Studies in Sind,Jamshoro, 1989.

57. See H. Feldman, One Hunderd Years of Karachi,Kharachi 1960.

58. On the Parsis in Karachi, see T. R. Metcalf and S. B.Freitag, 'Karachi's Early Merchant Families:

89

entrepreneurship and community', in D. K. Basu, TheRise and Growth of the ColonialPort Cities in Asia,Berkeley, CA, 1985,pp. 55-9.

59. On the role of the Shikarpuris in Karachi, see Banga,'Karachi and its Hinterland's pp. 357-8: 'TheShikarpuri Banias... migrated to Karachi to take overits grain and cotton trade as brokers which placed themin a position of dominance in the commodity exporttrade... Their firms of bhaibands played an importantrole in the Buyers and Shippers Chamber- andorganization of firms engaged in maritime trade. Theydominated the Karachi Indian Merchants Associationfounded in 1902 and played an important role in theKarachi Cotton Association founded in 1933.

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