Musings About Chicken

7/23/2019 Musings About Chicken

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Schnelles Thai-Curry mit Huhn, Paprika und feiner ErdnussnoteZubereitung

Arbeitszeit: ca. 30 Min. / Koch-/Backzeit: ca. 25 Min. / Schwierigkeitsgrad: normal / Kalorien p. P.: ca. 890 kcalFleisch mit je 1 EL l, Sojasauce und dem Ingwer gut vermischen und ca. 30 Minutenmarinieren. In der Zwischenzeit Gemse putzen und schneiden. Fleisch in einer beschichteten Pfanne anbraten und zur Seite stellen.

Im Wok oder einer groen Pfanne mit hohem Rand die Currypaste in 1 EL l anrsten. DieErdnussbutter unterrhren und schmelzen lassen. Mit Kokosmilch ablschen, das Gemsezugeben und alles ca. 15 Minuten kcheln lassen.

In der Zwischenzeit den Reis zubereiten und ausdmpfen lassen.

Kurz vor Ende der Garzeit (das Gemse soll noch Biss haben) das Fleisch dazugebenund kurz erhitzen. Mit Palmzucker, Fischsauce (notfalls etwas Salz nehmen) und Zitronengraspaste (soll nicht mitkochen) abschmecken. Nach Belieben Thai-Basilikum darberstreuen und mit Reis servieren.

Die Zusammenstellung des Gemses kann man ganz nach Geschmack und Verfgbarkeit variieren/ergnzen, z.B. fein geschnittene Wasserkastanien fr noch mehr Biss, ein paar

kleine Brokkolirschen oder einige Zuckerschoten (diagonal geteilt, kurz blanchiert oder angebraten) als zustzlichen Farbtupfer. Es sollten (geputzt und geschnitten gemessen) insgesamt ca. 4 - 5 Handvoll Gemse sein.

Zitronengraspaste ist geriebenes, in etwas Pflanzenl eingelegtes Zitronengras. Das angebrochene Glas am besten im Tiefkhlfach aufbewahren.

ChickenFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFor chickens as food, see Chicken (food). For the broader species of which chickens form a subspecies, see Red junglefowl. For other uses, see Chicken (disambiguation), Chooks (disambiguation), or Red junglefowl.

ChickenFemale pair.jpgA rooster (left) and hen (right)Conservation statusDomesticatedScientific classificationKingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataClass: AvesOrder: GalliformesFamily: PhasianidaeSubfamily: PhasianinaeGenus: Gallus

Species: G. gallusSubspecies: G. g. domesticusTrinomial nameGallus gallus domesticus(Linnaeus, 1758)

The chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) is a domesticated fowl, a subspecies of the red junglefowl. As one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, with a population of more than 24 billion in 2003,[1] there are more chickens in the world than any other species of bird. Humans keep chickens primarily as a sou


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rce of food, consuming both their meat and their eggs.

The earliest known domestication occurred in Northern China 8,000 BCE determinedfrom archaeological chicken bones.[2] Previously genetic studies have pointed to multiple maternal origins in Southeast, East, and South Asia, but with the clade found in the Americas, Europe, the Middle East and Africa originating in theIndian subcontinent. From India, the domesticated chicken was imported to Lydiain western Asia Minor, and to Greece by the fifth century BC.[3] Fowl had been known in Egypt since the mid-15th century BC, with the "bird that gives birth every day" having come to Egypt from the land between Syria and Shinar, Babylonia,according to the annals of Thutmose III.[4][5][6]

Contents

1 Terminology 2 General biology and habitat 2.1 Behaviour 2.1.1 Social behaviour 2.1.2 Courtship 2.1.3 Nesting and laying behaviour 2.1.4 Broodiness 2.1.5 Hatching and early life 2.2 Embryology 3 Breeding

3.1 Origins 3.1.1 South America 4 Farming 4.1 Reared for meat 4.2 Reared for eggs 4.2.1 Artificial incubation 5 As pets 6 Diseases and ailments 7 In religion and mythology 8 In history 9 As food 9.1 Eggs 10 See also

11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links

Terminology

In the UK and Ireland adult male chickens over the age of one year are primarilyknown as cocks, whereas in America, Australia and Canada they are more commonlycalled roosters. Males less than a year old are cockerels.[7] Castrated roosters are called capons (surgical and chemical castration are now illegal in some parts of the world). Females over a year old are known as hens and younger femalesas pullets[8] although in the egg-laying industry, a pullet becomes a hen whenshe begins to lay eggs at 16 to 20 weeks of age. In Australia and New Zealand (a

lso sometimes in Britain), there is a generic term chook /'t??k/ to describe allages and both sexes.[9] The young are called chicks and the meat is called chicken.

"Chicken" originally referred to chicks, not the species itself.[citation needed] The species as a whole was then called domestic fowl, or just fowl. This use of "chicken" survives in the phrase "Hen and Chickens", sometimes used as a British public house or theatre name, and to name groups of one large and many smallrocks or islands in the sea (see for example Hen and Chicken Islands). The word"chicken" is sometimes erroneously construed to mean females exclusively, despit


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e the term "hen" for females being in wide circulation.

In the Deep South of the United States chickens are also referred to by the slang term yardbird.[10]General biology and habitatIn some breeds the adult rooster can be distinguished from the hen by his largercomb

Chickens are omnivores.[11] In the wild, they often scratch at the soil to search for seeds, insects and even larger animals such as lizards, small snakes or young mice.[12]

Chickens may live for five to ten years, depending on the breed.[13] The world'soldest chicken, a hen, died of heart failure at the age of 16 according to Guinness World Records.[14]

Roosters can usually be differentiated from hens by their striking plumage of long flowing tails and shiny, pointed feathers on their necks (hackles) and backs(saddle), which are typically of brighter, bolder colours than those of femalesof the same breed. However, in some breeds, such as the Sebright chicken, the rooster has only slightly pointed neck feathers, the same colour as the hen's. Theidentification can be made by looking at the comb, or eventually from the development of spurs on the male's legs (in a few breeds and in certain hybrids, themale and female chicks may be differentiated by colour). Adult chickens have a f

leshy crest on their heads called a comb, or cockscomb, and hanging flaps of skin either side under their beaks called wattles. Collectively, these and other fleshy protuberances on the head and throat are called caruncles. Both the adult male and female have wattles and combs, but in most breeds these are more prominent in males. A muff or beard is a mutation found in several chicken breeds whichcauses extra feathering under the chicken's face, giving the appearance of a beard. Domestic chickens are not capable of long distance flight, although lighterbirds are generally capable of flying for short distances, such as over fencesor into trees (where they would naturally roost). Chickens may occasionally flybriefly to explore their surroundings, but generally do so only to flee perceived danger.BehaviourHen with chicks, India

Social behaviour

Chickens are gregarious birds and live together in flocks. They have a communalapproach to the incubation of eggs and raising of young. Individual chickens ina flock will dominate others, establishing a "pecking order", with dominant individuals having priority for food access and nesting locations. Removing hens orroosters from a flock causes a temporary disruption to this social order until anew pecking order is established. Adding hens, especially younger birds, to anexisting flock can lead to fighting and injury.[15] When a rooster finds food, he may call other chickens to eat first. He does this by clucking in a high pitchas well as picking up and dropping the food. This behaviour may also be observed in mother hens to call their chicks and encourage them to eat.

A rooster's crowing (a loud and sometimes shrill call) is a territorial signal to other roosters. However, crowing may also result from sudden disturbances within their surroundings. Hens cluck loudly after laying an egg, and also to call their chicks. Chickens also give a low "warning call" when they think they see apredator approaching.Courtship

To initiate courting, some roosters may dance in a circle around or near a hen ("a circle dance"), often lowering his wing which is closest to the hen.[16] Thedance triggers a response in the hen[16] and when she responds to his "call", th


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e rooster may mount the hen and proceed with the mating.Nesting and laying behaviourChicken eggs vary in colour depending on the hen, typically ranging from brightwhite to shades of brown and even blue, green, and recently reported purple (found in South Asia) (Araucana varieties).Chicks before their first outing

Hens will often try to lay in nests that already contain eggs and have been known to move eggs from neighbouring nests into their own. The result of this behaviour is that a flock will use only a few preferred locations, rather than havinga different nest for every bird. Hens will often express a preference to lay inthe same location. It is not unknown for two (or more) hens to try to share thesame nest at the same time. If the nest is small, or one of the hens is particularly determined, this may result in chickens trying to lay on top of each other.There is evidence that individual hens prefer to be either solitary or gregarious nesters.[17] Some farmers use fake eggs made from plastic or stone (or golf balls) to encourage hens to lay in a particular location.Broodiness

Under natural conditions, most birds lay only until a clutch is complete, and they will then incubate all the eggs. Many domestic hens will also do thisand are then said to "go broody". The broody hen will stop laying and instead will focuson the incubation of the eggs (a full clutch is usually about 12 eggs). She will"sit" or "set" on the nest, protesting or pecking in defense if disturbed or re

moved, and she will rarely leave the nest to eat, drink, or dust-bathe. While brooding, the hen maintains the nest at a constant temperature and humidity, as well as turning the eggs regularly during the first part of the incubation. To stimulate broodiness, an owner may place many artificial eggs in the nest, or to stop it they may place the hen in an elevated cage with an open wire floor.Skull of a three-week-old chicken. Here the opisthotic bone appears in the occipital region, as in the adult Chelonian. bo = Basi-occipital, bt = Basi-temporal,eo = Opisthotic, f = Frontal, fm = Foramen magnum, fo = Fontanella, oc = Occipital condyle, op = Opisthotic, p = Parietal, pf = Post-frontal, sc = Sinus canalin supra-occipital, so = Supra-occpital, sq = Squamosal, 8 = Exit of vagus nerve.

Modern egg-laying breeds rarely go broody, and those that do often stop part-way

through the incubation. However, some "utility" (general purpose) breeds, suchas the Cochin, Cornish and Silkie, do regularly go broody, and they make excellent mothers, not only for chicken eggs but also for those of other specieseven those with much smaller or larger eggs and different incubation periods, such as quail, pheasants, turkeys or geese. Chicken eggs can also be hatched under a broody duck, with varied success.Hatching and early life

At the end of the incubation period (about 21 days),[16] the eggs, if fertile, will hatch. Development of the egg starts only when incubation begins, so they all hatch within a day or two of each other, despite perhaps being laid over a period of two weeks or so. Before hatching, the hen can hear the chicks peeping inside the eggs, and will gently cluck to stimulate them to break out of their shel

ls. The chick begins by "pipping"; pecking a breathing hole with its egg tooth towards the blunt end of the egg, usually on the upper side. The chick will thenrest for some hours, absorbing the remaining egg yolk and withdrawing the bloodsupply from the membrane beneath the shell (used earlier for breathing through the shell). It then enlarges the hole, gradually turning round as it goes, and eventually severing the blunt end of the shell completely to make a lid. It crawlsout of the remaining shell, and its wet down dries out in the warmth of the nest.

The hen will usually stay on the nest for about two days after the first egg hat


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ches, and during this time the newly hatched chicks live off the egg yolk they absorb just before hatching. Any eggs not fertilized by a rooster will not hatch,and the hen eventually loses interest in these and leaves the nest. After hatching, the hen fiercely guards the chicks, and will brood them when necessary to keep them warm, at first often returning to the nest at night. She leads them tofood and water; she will call them to edible items, but seldom feeds them directly. She continues to care for them until they are several weeks old, when she will gradually lose interest and eventually start to lay again.EmbryologyFile:Embryo.ogvPlay mediaEarliest gestation stages and blood circulation of a chicken embryo

In 2006, scientists researching the ancestry of birds "turned on" a chicken recessive gene, talpid2, and found that the embryo jaws initiated formation of teeth, like those found in ancient bird fossils. John Fallon, the overseer of the project, stated that chickens have "...retained the ability to make teeth, under certain conditions... ."[18]BreedingOrigins

This article contains too many or too-lengthy quotations for an encyclopedic entry. Please help improve the article by editing it to take facts from excessively quoted material and rewrite them as sourced original prose. Consider transferring direct quotations to Wikiquote. (December 2014)Male red junglefowl.

The domestic chicken is descended primarily from the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) and is scientifically classified as the same species.[19] As such it can anddoes freely interbreed with populations of red jungle fowl.[19] Recent geneticanalysis has revealed that at least the gene for yellow skin was incorporated into domestic birds through hybridization with the grey junglefowl (G. sonneratii).[20] The traditional poultry farming view is stated in Encyclopdia Britannica (2007): "Humans first domesticated chickens of Indian origin for the purpose of cockfighting in Asia, Africa, and Europe. Very little formal attention was given to egg or meat production... ", a view supported by many archeologists. In the last decade there have been a number of genetic studies. According to one study, asingle domestication event occurring in the region of modern Thailand created the modern chicken with minor transitions separating the modern breeds.[21] Howev

er, that study was later found to be based on incomplete data, and recent studies point to multiple maternal origins, with the clade found in the Americas, Europe, Middle East, and Africa, originating from the Indian subcontinent, where a large number of unique haplotypes occur.[22][23] It is postulated that the junglefowl, known as the "bamboo fowl" in many Southeast Asian languages, is a special pheasant well adapted to take advantage of the large amounts of fruits that are produced during the end of the 50-year bamboo seeding cycle to boost its own reproduction.[24] In domesticating the chicken, humans took advantage of this prolific reproduction of the jungle fowl when exposed to large amounts of food.[25]

It has been claimed (based on paleoclimatic assumptions) that chickens were domesticated in Southern China in 6000 BC.[26] However, according to a recent study,[27] "it is not known whether these birds made much contribution to the modern d

omestic fowl. Chickens from the Harappan culture of the Indus Valley (2500-2100BC), in what today is Pakistan, may have been the main source of diffusion throughout the world." A northern road spread the chicken to the Tarim basin of central Asia. The chicken reached Europe (Romania, Turkey, Greece, Ukraine) about 3000 BC.[28] Introduction into Western Europe came far later, about the 1st millennium BC. Phoenicians spread chickens along the Mediterranean coasts, to Iberia. Breeding increased under the Roman Empire, and was reduced in the Middle Ages.[28] Middle East traces of chicken go back to a little earlier than 2000 BC, in Syria; chicken went southward only in the 1st millennium BC. The chicken reached Egypt for purposes of cock fighting about 1400 BC, and became widely bred only in


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Ptolemaic Egypt (about 300 BC).[28] Little is known about the chicken's introduction into Africa. Three possible routes of introduction in about the early firstmillennium AD could have been through the Egyptian Nile Valley, the East AfricaRoman-Greek or Indian trade, or from Carthage and the Berbers, across the Sahara. The earliest known remains are from Mali, Nubia, East Coast, and South Africaand date back to the middle of the first millennium AD.[28] Domestic chicken inthe Americas before Western conquest is still an ongoing discussion, but blue-egged chickens, found only in the Americas and Asia, suggest an Asian origin forearly American chickens.[28]

A lack of data from Thailand, Russia, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa makes it difficult to lay out a clear map of the spread ofchickens in these areas; better description and genetic analysis of local breedsthreatened by extinction may also help with research into this area.[28]South America

An unusual variety of chicken that has its origins in South America is the araucana, bred in southern Chile by the Mapuche people. Araucanas, some of which aretailless and some of which have tufts of feathers around their ears, lay blue-green eggs. It has long been suggested that they pre-date the arrival of Europeanchickens brought by the Spanish and are evidence of pre-Columbian trans-Pacificcontacts between Asian or Pacific Oceanic peoples, particularly the Polynesians,and South America. In 2007, an international team of researchers reported the results of analysis of chicken bones found on the Arauco Peninsula in south-centr

al Chile. Radiocarbon dating suggested that the chickens were Pre-Columbian, andDNA analysis showed that they were related to prehistoric populations of chickens in Polynesia.[29] These results appeared to confirm that the chickens came from Polynesia and that there were transpacific contacts between Polynesia and South America before Columbus's arrival in the Americas.[30]

However, a later report looking at the same specimens concluded:

A published, apparently pre-Columbian, Chilean specimen and six pre-EuropeanPolynesian specimens also cluster with the same European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast Asian sequences, providing no support for a Polynesian introduction ofchickens to South America. In contrast, sequences from two archaeological siteson Easter Island group with an uncommon haplogroup from Indonesia, Japan, and C

hina and may represent a genetic signature of an early Polynesian dispersal. Modeling of the potential marine carbon contribution to the Chilean archaeologicalspecimen casts further doubt on claims for pre-Columbian chickens, and definitive proof will require further analyses of ancient DNA sequences and radiocarbon and stable isotope data from archaeological excavations within both Chile and Polynesia.[31]

FarmingMain article: Poultry farmingA former battery hen, five days after her release. Note the pale comb and missing feathers.

More than 50 billion chickens are reared annually as a source of food, for both

their meat and their eggs.[32][better source needed]

The vast majority of poultry are raised in factory farms. According to the Worldwatch Institute, 74 percent of the world's poultry meat and 68 percent of eggs are produced this way.[33] One alternative to intensive poultry farming is free range farming.

Friction between these two main methods has led to long-term issues of ethical consumerism. Opponents of intensive farming argue that it harms the environment,creates human health risks and is inhumane. Advocates of intensive farming say t


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hat their highly efficient systems save land and food resources owing to increased productivity, and that the animals are looked after in state-of-the-art environmentally controlled facilities.[citation needed]

In part due to the conditions on intensive poultry farms and recent recalls of large quantities of eggs, there is a growing movement for small-scale micro-flocks or 'backyard chickens'. This involves keeping small numbers of hens (usually no more than a dozen) in suburban or urban residential areas to control bugs, toutilize chicken waste as fertilizer in small gardens, and of course for the high-quality eggs and meat that are produced.Reared for meatMain article: BroilerA commercial chicken house with open sides raising broiler pullets for meat

Chickens farmed for meat are called broiler chickens. Chickens will naturally live for 6 or more years, but broiler chickens typically take less than 6 weeks toreach slaughter size.[34] A free range or organic meat chicken will usually beslaughtered at about 14 weeks of age.Reared for eggs

Chickens farmed for eggs are called egg-laying hens. In total, the UK alone consumes over 29 million eggs per day. Some hens breeds can produce over 300 eggs per year, with "the highest authenticated rate of egg laying being 371 eggs in 364days".[35] After 12 months of laying, the commercial hen's egg-laying ability s

tarts to decline to the point where the flock is unviable. Hens, particularly from battery cage systems, are sometimes infirm or have lost a significant amountof their feathers, and their life expectancy has been reduced from around 7 years to less than 2 years.[36] In the UK and Europe, laying hens are then slaughtered and used in processed foods or sold as "soup hens".[36] In some other countries, flocks are sometimes force moulted, rather than being slaughtered, to reinvigorate egg-laying. This involves complete withdrawal of food (and sometimes water) for 714 days[37] or sufficiently long to cause a body weight loss of 25 to 35%,[38] or up to 28 days under experimental conditions.[39] This stimulates the hen to lose her feathers, but also reinvigorates egg-production. Some flocks may be force moulted several times. In 2003, more than 75% of all flocks were moultedin the US.[40]Artificial incubation

An egg incubator

Incubation can successfully occur artificially in machines that provide the correct, controlled environment for the developing chick.[41][42][43][44] The average incubation period for chickens is 21 days but may depend on the temperature and humidity in the incubator. Temperature regulation is the most critical factorfor a successful hatch. Variations of more than 1 C (1.8 F) from the optimum temperature of 37.5 C (99.5 F) will reduce hatch rates. Humidity is also important because the rate at which eggs lose water by evaporation depends on the ambient relative humidity. Evaporation can be assessed by candling, to view the size of theair sac, or by measuring weight loss. Relative humidity should be increased to around 70% in the last three days of incubation to keep the membrane around the hatching chick from drying out after the chick cracks the shell. Lower humidity i

s usual in the first 18 days to ensure adequate evaporation. The position of theeggs in the incubator can also influence hatch rates. For best results, eggs should be placed with the pointed ends down and turned regularly (at least three times per day) until one to three days before hatching. If the eggs aren't turned, the embryo inside may stick to the shell and may hatch with physical defects.Adequate ventilation is necessary to provide the embryo with oxygen. Older eggsrequire increased ventilation.

Many commercial incubators are industrial-sized with shelves holding tens of thousands of eggs at a time, with rotation of the eggs a fully automated process. H


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ome incubators are boxes holding from 6 to 75 eggs; they are usually electrically powered, but in the past some were heated with an oil or paraffin lamp.As petsMain article: Chickens as pets

Chickens are sometimes kept as pets and can be tamed by hand feeding, but roosters can sometimes become aggressive and noisy, although aggression can be curbedwith proper handling. Some have advised against keeping them around very young children. Certain breeds, however, such as silkies and many bantam varieties aregenerally docile and are often recommended as good pets around children with disabilities.[45] Some people find chickens' behaviour entertaining and educational.[46]Diseases and ailments

Chickens are susceptible to several parasites, including lice, mites, ticks, fleas, and intestinal worms, as well as other diseases. Despite the name, they arenot affected by chickenpox, which is generally restricted to humans.[47]

Some of the diseases that can affect chickens are shown below:Name Common name CauseAspergillosis fungiAvian influenza bird flu virusHistomoniasis blackhead disease protozoal parasiteBotulism toxin

Cage layer fatigue mineral deficiencies, lack of exerciseCampylobacteriosis tissue injury in the gutCoccidiosis parasitesColds virusCrop bound improper feedingDermanyssus gallinae red mite parasiteEgg bound oversized eggErysipelas bacteriaFatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome high-energy foodFowl cholera bacteriaFowl pox virusFowl typhoid bacteriaGallid herpesvirus 1

or infectious laryngotracheitis virusGapeworm Syngamus trachea wormsInfectious bronchitis virusInfectious bursal disease Gumboro virusInfectious coryza bacteriaLymphoid leukosis avian leukosis virusMarek's disease virusMoniliasis yeast infectionor thrush fungiMycoplasmas bacteria-like organismsNewcastle disease virusNecrotic enteritis bacteriaOmphalitis mushy chick disease umbilical cord stump

Peritonitis[48] infection in abdomen from egg yolkProlapsePsittacosis bacteriaPullorum salmonella bacteriaScaly leg parasitesSquamous cell carcinoma cancerTibial dyschondroplasia speed growingToxoplasmosis protozoal parasiteUlcerative enteritis bacteriaUlcerative pododermatitis bumblefoot bacteria


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In religion and mythologyVatican Persian Cock A 1919 print of a fabric square of a Persian cock or a Persian bird design belonging to the Vatican (Holy See) in Rome dating to 600 CE. Notice the halo denoting the status of being holy in that religious schema.

Since antiquity chickens have been, and still are, a sacred animal in some cultures[49] and deeply embedded within belief systems and religious worship. The term "Persian bird" for the cock appears to been given by the Greeks after Persiancontact "because of his great importance and his religious use among the Persians".[50]

In Indonesia the chicken has great significance during the Hindu cremation ceremony. A chicken is considered a channel for evil spirits which may be present during the ceremony. A chicken is tethered by the leg and kept present at the ceremony for its duration to ensure that any evil spirits present go into the chickenand not the family members. The chicken is then taken home and returns to its normal life.

In ancient Greece, the chicken was not normally used for sacrifices, perhaps because it was still considered an exotic animal. Because of its valor, the cock isfound as an attribute of Ares, Heracles, and Athena. The alleged last words ofSocrates as he died from hemlock poisoning, as recounted by Plato, were "Crito,I owe a cock to Asclepius; will you remember to pay the debt?", signifying thatdeath was a cure for the illness of life.

The Greeks believed that even lions were afraid of roosters. Several of Aesop'sFables reference this belief.

In the New Testament, Jesus prophesied the betrayal by Peter: "Jesus answered, 'I tell you, Peter, before the rooster crows today, you will deny three times that you know me.'"[51] It happened,[52] and Peter cried bitterly. This made the rooster a symbol for both vigilance and betrayal.

Earlier, Jesus compares himself to a mother hen when talking about Jerusalem: "OJerusalem, Jerusalem, you who kill the prophets and stone those sent to you, how often I have longed to gather your children together, as a hen gathers her chicks under her wings, but you were not willing."[53]

In the sixth century, Pope Gregory I declared the rooster the emblem of Christianity[54] and another Papal enactment of the ninth century by Pope Nicholas I[49]ordered the figure of the rooster to be placed on every church steeple.[55]

In many Central European folk tales, the devil is believed to flee at the firstcrowing of a rooster.

In traditional Jewish practice, a kosher animal is swung around the head and then slaughtered on the afternoon before Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, in a ritual called kapparos; it is now common practice to cradle the bird and move it around the head. A chicken or fish is typically used because it is commonly available (and small enough to hold). The sacrifice of the animal is to receive atonem

ent, for the animal symbolically takes on all the person's sins in kapparos. Themeat is then donated to the poor. A woman brings a hen for the ceremony, whilea man brings a rooster. Although not a sacrifice in the biblical sense, the death of the animal reminds the penitent sinner that his or her life is in God's hands.

The Talmud speaks of learning "courtesy toward one's mate" from the rooster.[56]This might refer to the fact that when a rooster finds something good to eat, he calls his hens to eat first. The Talmud likewise provides us with the statement "Had the Torah not been given to us, we would have learned modesty from cats,


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honest toil from ants, chastity from doves and gallantry from cocks,"[57][58] which may be further understood as to that of the gallantry of cocks being taken in the context of a religious instilling vessel of "a girt one of the loins" (Young's Literal Translation) that which is "stately in his stride" and "move with stately bearing" in the Book of Proverbs 30:29-31 as referenced by Michael V. Foxin his Proverbs 10-31 where Sa?adiah ben Yosef Gaon (Saadia Gaon) identifies the definitive trait of "A cock girded about the loins" in Proverbs 30:31 (DouayRheims Bible) as "the honesty of their behavior and their success",[59] identifyinga spiritual purpose of a religious vessel within that religious instilling schema of purpose and use.

The chicken is one of the Zodiac symbols of the Chinese calendar. In Chinese folk religion, a cooked chicken as a religious offering is usually limited to ancestor veneration and worship of village deities. Vegetarian deities such as the Buddha are not recipients of such offerings. Under some observations, an offeringof chicken is presented with "serious" prayer (while roasted pork is offered during a joyous celebration). In Confucian Chinese weddings, a chicken can be usedas a substitute for one who is seriously ill or not available (e.g., sudden death) to attend the ceremony. A red silk scarf is placed on the chicken's head anda close relative of the absent bride/groom holds the chicken so the ceremony mayproceed. However, this practice is rare today.

A cockatrice was supposed to have been born from an egg laid by a rooster, as well as killed by a rooster's call.

In historyThe red junglefowl

An early domestication of chickens in Southeast Asia is probable, since the wordfor domestic chicken (*manuk) is part of the reconstructed Proto-Austronesian language (see Austronesian languages). Chickens, together with dogs and pigs, were the domestic animals of the Lapita culture,[60] the first Neolithic culture ofOceania.[61]

The first pictures of chickens in Europe are found on Corinthian pottery of the7th century BC.[62][63] The poet Cratinus (mid-5th century BC, according to thelater Greek author Athenaeus) calls the chicken "the Persian alarm". In Aristophanes's comedy The Birds (414 BC) a chicken is called "the Median bird", which po

ints to an introduction from the East. Pictures of chickens are found on Greek red figure and black-figure pottery.

In ancient Greece, chickens were still rare and were a rather prestigious food for symposia.[citation needed] Delos seems to have been a center of chicken breeding (Columella, De Re Rustica 8.3.4).

The Romans used chickens for oracles, both when flying ("ex avibus", Augury) andwhen feeding ("auspicium ex tripudiis", Alectryomancy). The hen ("gallina") gave a favourable omen ("auspicium ratum"), when appearing from the left (Cic.,de Div. ii.26), like the crow and the owl.

For the oracle "ex tripudiis" according to Cicero (Cic. de Div. ii.34), any bird

could be used in auspice, and shows at one point that any bird could perform the tripudium[64] but normally only chickens ("pulli") were consulted. The chickens were cared for by the pullarius, who opened their cage and fed them pulses ora special kind of soft cake when an augury was needed. If the chickens stayed intheir cage, made noises ("occinerent"), beat their wings or flew away, the omenwas bad; if they ate greedily, the omen was good.[65]

In 249 BC, the Roman general Publius Claudius Pulcher had his "sacred chickens""[66] thrown overboard when they refused to feed before the battle of Drepana, saying "If they won't eat, perhaps they will drink." He promptly lost the battle


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against the Carthaginians and 93 Roman ships were sunk. Back in Rome, he was tried for impiety and heavily fined.

In 162 BC, the Lex Faunia forbade fattening hens to conserve grain rations.[67][68] To get around this, the Romans castrated roosters(capon), which resulted ina doubling of size[69] despite the law that was passed in Rome that forbade theconsumption of fattened chickens. It was renewed a number of times, but does notseem to have been successful. Fattening chickens with bread soaked in milk wasthought to give especially delicious results. The Roman gourmet Apicius offers 17 recipes for chicken, mainly boiled chicken with a sauce. All parts of the animal are used: the recipes include the stomach, liver, testicles and even the pygostyle (the fatty "tail" of the chicken where the tail feathers attach).

The Roman author Columella gives advice on chicken breeding in his eighth book of his treatise, De Re Rustica (On Agriculture). He identified Tanagrian, Rhodic,Chalkidic and Median (commonly misidentified as Melian) breeds, which have an impressive appearance, a quarrelsome nature and were used for cockfighting by theGreeks (De Re Rustica 8.3.4). For farming, native (Roman) chickens are to be preferred, or a cross between native hens and Greek cocks (De Re Rustica 8.2.13).Dwarf chickens are nice to watch because of their size but have no other advantages.

According to Columella (De Re Rustica 8.2.7), the ideal flock consists of 200 birds, which can be supervised by one person if someone is watching for stray anim

als. White chickens should be avoided as they are not very fertile and are easily caught by eagles or goshawks. One cock should be kept for five hens. In the case of Rhodian and Median cocks that are very heavy and therefore not much inclined to sex, only three hens are kept per cock. The hens of heavy fowls are not much inclined to brood; therefore their eggs are best hatched by normal hens. A hen can hatch no more than 15-23 eggs, depending on the time of year, and supervise no more than 30 hatchlings. Eggs that are long and pointed give more male, rounded eggs mainly female hatchlings (De Re Rustica 8.5.11).

Columella also states that chicken coops should face southeast and lie adjacentto the kitchen, as smoke is beneficial for the animals and "poultry never thriveso well as in warmth and smoke" (De Re Rustica 8.3.1).[70] Coops should consistof three rooms and possess a hearth. Dry dust or ash should be provided for dus

t-baths.

According to Columella (De Re Rustica 8.4.1), chickens should be fed on barley groats, small chick-peas, millet and wheat bran, if they are cheap. Wheat itselfshould be avoided as it is harmful to the birds. Boiled ryegrass (Lolium sp.) and the leaves and seeds of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) can be used as well. Grape marc can be used, but only when the hens stop laying eggs, that is, about themiddle of November; otherwise eggs are small and few. When feeding grape marc, it should be supplemented with some bran. Hens start to lay eggs after the wintersolstice, in warm places around the first of January, in colder areas in the middle of February. Parboiled barley increases their fertility; this should be mixed with alfalfa leaves and seeds, or vetches or millet if alfalfa is not at hand. Free-ranging chickens should receive two cups of barley daily.

Columella[citation needed] advises farmers to slaughter hens that are older thanthree years, because they no longer produce sufficient eggs.

According to Aldrovandi: Capons were produced by burning "the hind part of the bowels, or loins or spurs"[71] with a hot iron. The wound was treated with potter's chalk.

For the use of poultry and eggs in the kitchens of ancient Rome see Roman eatingand drinking.


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Chickens were spread by Polynesian seafarers and reached Easter Island in the 12th century AD, where they were the only domestic animal, with the possible exception of the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans). They were housed in extremely solidchicken coops built from stone, which was first reported as such to Linton Palmer in 1868, who also "expressed his doubts about this".[72]As foodMain article: Chicken (food)

The meat of the chicken, also called "chicken", is a type of poultry meat. Because of its relatively low cost, chicken is one of the most used meats in the world. Nearly all parts of the bird can be used for food, and the meat can be cookedin many different ways. Popular chicken dishes include roasted chicken, fried chicken, chicken soup, Buffalo wings, tandoori chicken, butter chicken, and chicken rice. Chicken is also a staple of many fast food restaurants.EggsMain articles: Egg (food) and List of egg dishes

In 2000, there were 50.4 million tons of eggs produced in the world (Executive guide to world poultry trends, 2001)[73] and an estimated 53.4 million tons of table eggs were produced during 2002.[74] In 2009, an estimated 62.1 million metric tons of eggs were produced worldwide from a total laying flock of approximately 6.4 billion hens.[75]

Chicken eggs are widely used in many types of dishes, both sweet and savory, including many baked goods. Eggs can be scrambled, fried, hard-boiled, soft-boiled,pickled, and poached. The albumen, or egg white, contains protein but little orno fat, and can be used in cooking separately from the yolk. Egg whites may beaerated or whipped to a light, fluffy consistency and are often used in dessertssuch as meringues and mousse. Ground egg shells are sometimes used as a food additive to deliver calcium. Hens do not need a male to produce eggs, only to fertilize them. A flock containing only females will still produce eggs; however, the eggs will all be infertile.

Houston

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Houston, Texas)This article is about the U.S. city. For other uses, see Houston (disambiguation).Not to be confused with Houston County, Texas, which is located in another partof the state.Houston, TexasCityCity of HoustonClockwise from top: Sam Houston monument, Downtown Houston, Houston Ship Channel, The Galleria, University of Houston, and the Christopher C. Kraft Jr. MissionControl Center.Clockwise from top: Sam Houston monument, Downtown Houston, Houston Ship Channel

, The Galleria, University of Houston, and the Christopher C. Kraft Jr. MissionControl Center.Flag of Houston, TexasFlag Official seal of Houston, TexasSealNickname(s): Space City (OFFICIAL) more...Location of Houston city limits in and around Harris CountyLocation of Houston city limits in and around Harris CountyHouston, Texas is located in USAHouston, Texas


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Houston, TexasLocation in the United StatesCoordinates: 2945'46?N 9522'59?WCoordinates: 2945'46?N 9522'59?WCountry United StatesState TexasCounties Harris, Fort Bend, MontgomeryIncorporated June 5, 1837GovernmentType MayorcouncilBody Houston City CouncilMayor Annise Parker (D)AreaCity 627.8 sq mi (1,625.2 km2)Land 634 sq mi (1,552.9 km2)Water 27.9 sq mi (72.3 km2)Metro 10,062 sq mi (26,060 km2)Elevation 43 ft (13 m)Population (2010)[2]City 2,099,451Estimate (2014) 2,239,558[1]Rank US: 4thDensity 3,662/sq mi (1,414/km2)Urban 4,944,332 (7th U.S.)Metro 6,313,158 (5th U.S.)

Demonym HoustonianTime zone CST (UTC-6)Summer (DST) CDT (UTC-5)Zip code 770XX, 772XX (P.O. Boxes)Area code(s) 281, 346, 713, 832FIPS code 48-35000[3]GNIS feature ID 1380948[4]Website houstontx.gov

Houston (Listeni/'hju?st?n/ HYOO-st?n) is the most populous city in Texas and the American South, and the fourth most populous city in the United States. With acensus-estimated 2014 population of 2.239 million people[5] within a land areaof 599.6 square miles (1,553 km2),[6] it also is the largest city in the Souther

n United States,[7] as well as the seat of Harris County. It is the principal ofits metropolitan area Greater Houston, which is the fifth most populated metropolitan area in the United States.

Houston was founded in 1836 on land near the banks of Buffalo Bayou (now known as Allen's Landing)[8][9] and incorporated as a city on June 5, 1837. The city was named after former General Sam Houston, who was president of the Republic of Texas and had commanded and won at the Battle of San Jacinto 25 miles (40 km) east of where the city was established. The burgeoning port and railroad industry,combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the city'spopulation. In the mid-twentieth century, Houston became the home of the Texas Medical Centerthe world's largest concentration of healthcare and research institutionsand NASA's Johnson Space Center, where the Mission Control Center is located

.[10]

Houston's economy has a broad industrial base in energy, manufacturing, aeronautics, and transportation. It is also leading in health care sectors and buildingoilfield equipment; only New York City is home to more Fortune 500 headquarterswithin its city limits.[11][12] The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled and second in total cargo tonnage handled.[13] Nicknamed the Space City, Houston is a global city, with strengths in business, international trade, entertainment, culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine and research. The city has a popul


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ation from various ethnic and religious backgrounds and a large and growing international community. Houston is considered to be the most diverse city in Texasand the United States.[14] It is home to many cultural institutions and exhibits, which attract more than 7 million visitors a year to the Museum District. Houston has an active visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District and offers year-round resident companies in all major performing arts.[15]

Contents

1 History 2 Geography 2.1 Geology 2.2 Climate 2.3 Cityscape 2.4 Architecture 3 Demographics 4 Economy 5 Culture 5.1 Arts and theater 5.2 Tourism and recreation 6 Sports 7 Government and politics 7.1 Crime 8 Education

8.1 Colleges and universities 9 Media 10 Infrastructure 10.1 Healthcare 10.2 Transportation 10.2.1 Highways 10.2.2 Transit systems 10.2.3 Cycling 10.2.4 Airports 10.3 Pipelines 11 Sister cities 12 See also 13 Notes

14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links

HistoryMain article: History of HoustonSee also: Historical events of HoustonSam Houston

In August 1836, two real estate entrepreneursAugustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allenfrom New York, purchased 6,642 acres (26.88 km2) of land along Buffalo Bayou with the intent of founding a city.[16] The Allen brothers decided to name the city after Sam Houston, the popular general at the Battle of San Jacinto,[16]

who was elected President of Texas in September 1836. The great majority of slaves in Texas came with their owners from the older slave states. Sizable numbers,however, came through the domestic slave trade. New Orleans was the center of this trade in the Deep South, but there were slave dealers in Houston. Thousandsof enslaved African-Americans lived near the city before the Civil War. Many ofthem near the city worked on sugar and cotton plantations, while most of those in the city limits had domestic and artisan jobs. In 1860 forty-nine percent of the city's population was enslaved. A few slaves, perhaps as many as 2,000 between 1835 and 1865, came through the illegal African trade. Post-war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands of the state. They also brought or


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purchased enslaved African Americans, whose numbers nearly tripled in the statefrom 1850 to 1860, from 58,000 to 182,566.

Houston was granted incorporation on June 5, 1837, with James S. Holman becomingits first mayor.[17] In the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County (now Harris County) and the temporary capital of the Republic of Texas.[18] In 1840, the community established a chamber of commerce in part to promote shipping and waterborne business at the newly created port on Buffalo Bayou.[19]Houston, circa 1873

By 1860, Houston had emerged as a commercial and railroad hub for the export ofcotton.[18] Railroad spurs from the Texas inland converged in Houston, where they met rail lines to the ports of Galveston and Beaumont. During the American Civil War, Houston served as a headquarters for General John Bankhead Magruder, whoused the city as an organization point for the Battle of Galveston.[20] After the Civil War, Houston businessmen initiated efforts to widen the city's extensive system of bayous so the city could accept more commerce between downtown and the nearby port of Galveston. By 1890, Houston was the railroad center of Texas.Union Station, Houston, Texas (postcard, circa 1911)

In 1900, after Galveston was struck by a devastating hurricane, efforts to makeHouston into a viable deep-water port were accelerated.[21] The following year,oil discovered at the Spindletop oil field near Beaumont prompted the developmen

t of the Texas petroleum industry.[22] In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt approved a $1 million improvement project for the Houston Ship Channel. By 1910 thecity's population had reached 78,800, almost doubling from a decade before. African-Americans formed a large part of the city's population, numbering 23,929 people, or nearly one-third of the residents.[23]

President Woodrow Wilson opened the deep-water Port of Houston in 1914, seven years after digging began. By 1930, Houston had become Texas' most populous city and Harris the most populous county.[24] In 1940, the Census Bureau reported Houston's population as 77.5% white and 22.4% black.[25]Downtown Houston, circa 1927

When World War II started, tonnage levels at the port decreased and shipping act

ivities were suspended; however, the war did provide economic benefits for the city. Petrochemical refineries and manufacturing plants were constructed along the ship channel because of the demand for petroleum and synthetic rubber productsby the defense industry during the war.[26] Ellington Field, initially built during World War I, was revitalized as an advanced training center for bombardiersand navigators.[27] The Brown Shipbuilding Company was founded in 1942 to buildships for the U.S. Navy during World War II. Due to the boom in defense jobs, thousands of new workers migrated to the city, both blacks and whites competing for the higher-paying jobs. President Roosevelt had established a policy of non-discrimination for defense contractors, and blacks gained some opportunities, especially in shipbuilding, although not without resistance from whites and increasing social tensions that erupted into occasional violence. Economic gains of blacks who entered defense industries continued in the postwar years.[28]

In 1945 the M.D. Anderson Foundation formed the Texas Medical Center. After thewar, Houston's economy reverted to being primarily port-driven. In 1948, the city annexed several unincorporated areas, more than doubling its size. Houston proper began to spread across the region.[17][29]

In 1950, the availability of air conditioning provided impetus for many companies to relocate to Houston, where wages were lower than the North; this resulted in an economic boom and produced a key shift in the city's economy toward the energy sector.[30][31]


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Ashburn's Houston City Map (circa 1956)The space shuttle Challenger atop its Boeing 747 SCA, flying over Johnson SpaceCenter, 1983

The increased production of the expanded shipbuilding industry during World WarII spurred Houston's growth,[32] as did the establishment in 1961 of NASA's "Manned Spacecraft Center" (renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in 1973). This was the stimulus for the development of the city's aerospace industry. The Astrodome, nicknamed the "Eighth Wonder of the World",[33] opened in 1965 as the world's first indoor domed sports stadium.

During the late 1970s, Houston had a population boom as people from the Rust Belt states moved to Texas in large numbers.[34] The new residents came for numerous employment opportunities in the petroleum industry, created as a result of theArab Oil Embargo. With the increase in numerous professional jobs, Houston hasbecome a destination for many college-educated persons, including African Americans in a reverse Great Migration from northern areas.

One wave of the population boom ended abruptly in the mid-1980s, as oil prices fell precipitously. The space industry also suffered in 1986 after the Space Shuttle Challenger disintegrated shortly after launch. There was a cutback in some activities for a period. In the late 1980s, the city's economy suffered from thenationwide recession. After the early 1990s recession, Houston made efforts to diversify its economy by focusing on aerospace and health care/biotechnology, and

reduced its dependence on the petroleum industry. Since the increase of oil prices in the 2000s, the petroleum industry has again increased its share of the local economy.

In 1997, Houstonians elected Lee P. Brown as the city's first African-American mayor.[35]

In June 2001, Tropical Storm Allison dumped up to 40 inches (1,000 mm) of rain on parts of Houston, causing the worst flooding in the city's history. The stormcost billions of dollars in damage and killed 20 people in Texas.[36] By December of that same year, Houston-based energy company Enron collapsed into the third-largest ever U.S. bankruptcy during an investigation surrounding fabricated partnerships that were allegedly used to hide debt and inflate profits.

In August 2005, Houston became a shelter to more than 150,000 people from New Orleans who evacuated from Hurricane Katrina.[37] One month later, approximately 2.5 million Houston area residents evacuated when Hurricane Rita approached the Gulf Coast, leaving little damage to the Houston area. This was the largest urbanevacuation in the history of the United States.[38][39] In September 2008, Houston was hit by Hurricane Ike. As many as forty percent refused to leave Galveston Island because they feared the traffic problems that happened after HurricaneRita.

During the 2015 TexasOklahoma floods parts of the city were flooded.GeographyMain article: Geography of Houston

A simulated-color image of Houston

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 656.3square miles (1,700 km2); this comprises 634.0 square miles (1,642 km2) of landand 22.3 square miles (58 km2) of water.[40] The Piney Woods is northeast of Houston. Most of Houston is located on the gulf coastal plain, and its vegetationis classified as temperate grassland and forest. Much of the city was built on forested land, marshes, swamp, or prairie which resembles the Deep South, and areall still visible in surrounding areas. Flatness of the local terrain, when combined with urban sprawl, has made flooding a recurring problem for the city.[41]


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Downtown stands about 50 feet (15 m) above sea level,[42] and the highest pointin far northwest Houston is about 125 feet (38 m) in elevation.[43][44] The city once relied on groundwater for its needs, but land subsidence forced the cityto turn to ground-level water sources such as Lake Houston, Lake Conroe and LakeLivingston.[17][45] The city owns surface water rights for 1.20 billion gallonsof water a day in addition to 150 million gallons a day worth of groundwater.[46]

Houston has four major bayous passing through the city. Buffalo Bayou runs through downtown and the Houston Ship Channel, and has three tributaries: White Oak Bayou, which runs through the Houston Heights community northwest of Downtown andthen towards Downtown; Brays Bayou, which runs along the Texas Medical Center;[47] and Sims Bayou, which runs through the south of Houston and downtown Houston. The ship channel continues past Galveston and then into the Gulf of Mexico.[48]Geology

Underpinning Houston's land surface are unconsolidated clays, clay shales, and poorly cemented sands up to several miles deep. The region's geology developed from river deposits formed from the erosion of the Rocky Mountains. These sediments consist of a series of sands and clays deposited on decaying organic marine matter, that over time, transformed into oil and natural gas. Beneath the layers of sediment is a water-deposited layer of halite, a rock salt. The porous layerswere compressed over time and forced upward. As it pushed upward, the salt dragg

ed surrounding sediments into salt dome formations, often trapping oil and gas that seeped from the surrounding porous sands. The thick, rich, sometimes black,surface soil is suitable for rice farming in suburban outskirts where the city continues to grow.[49][50]

The Houston area has over 150 active faults (estimated to be 300 active faults)with an aggregate length of up to 310 miles (500 km),[51][52][53] including theLong PointEureka Heights fault system which runs through the center of the city.There have been no significant historically recorded earthquakes in Houston, butresearchers do not discount the possibility of such quakes having occurred in the deeper past, nor occurring in the future. Land in some areas southeast of Houston is sinking because water has been pumped out of the ground for many years.It may be associated with slip along the faults; however, the slippage is slow a

nd not considered an earthquake, where stationary faults must slip suddenly enough to create seismic waves.[54] These faults also tend to move at a smooth ratein what is termed "fault creep",[45] which further reduces the risk of an earthquake.ClimateMain article: Climate of HoustonAllen's Landing after Tropical Storm Allison, June 2001

Houston's climate is classified as humid subtropical (Cfa in Kppen climate classification system), typical of the lower South. While not located in "Tornado Alley", like much of the rest of Texas, spring supercell thunderstorms sometimes bring tornadoes to the area. Prevailing winds are from the south and southeast during most of the year, which bring heat and moisture from the nearby Gulf of Mexic

o.[55]

During the summer months, it is common for temperatures to reach over 90 F (32 C),with an average of 106.5 days per year, including a majority from June to September, with a high of 90 F or above and 4.6 days at or over 100 F (38 C).[56] However, humidity usually yields a higher heat index. Summer mornings average over 90percent relative humidity.[57] Winds are often light in the summer and offer little relief, except in the far southeastern outskirts near the Gulf coast and Galveston.[58] To cope with the strong humidity and heat, people use air conditioning in nearly every vehicle and building. In 1980, Houston was described as the "


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most air-conditioned place on earth".[59] Officially, the hottest temperature ever recorded in Houston is 109 F (43 C), which was reached both on September 4, 2000 and August 28, 2011.[56]

Houston has mild winters in contrast to most areas of the United States. In January, the normal mean temperature at Intercontinental Airport is 53.1 F (11.7 C), while that station has an average of 13 days with a low at or below freezing. Snowfall is rare. Recent snow events in Houston include a storm on December 24, 2004 when one inch (2.5 cm) of snow accumulated in parts of the metro area.[60] Falls of at least one inch on both December 10, 2008 and December 4, 2009 marked the first time measurable snowfall had occurred in two consecutive years in the city's recorded history. The coldest temperature officially recorded in Houston was 5 F (-15 C) on January 18, 1930.[56] Houston has historically received an ampleamount of rainfall, averaging about 49.8 in (1,260 mm) annually per 19812010 normals. Localized flooding often occurs, owing to the extremely flat topography andwidespread typical clay-silt prairie soils, which do not drain quickly.

Houston has excessive ozone levels and is routinely ranked among the most ozone-polluted cities in the United States.[61] Ground-level ozone, or smog, is Houston's predominant air pollution problem, with the American Lung Association ratingthe metropolitan area's ozone level 6th on the "Top 10 Most Ozone-Polluted Cities" in 2014.[62] The industries located along the ship channel are a major causeof the city's air pollution.[63] In 2006, Houston's air quality was comparableto that of Los Angeles.[63]

Climate data for Houston (Intercontinental Airport), 19812010 normals, extremes 1888present[a]Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug SepOct Nov Dec YearRecord high F (C) 87(31) 91(33) 96(36) 95(35) 99(37) 107(42) 105

(41) 109(43) 109(43) 99(37) 89(32) 85(29) 109(43)Average high F (C) 62.9(17.2) 66.3(19.1) 73.0(22.8) 79.6(26.4) 86.3(30.2) 91.4

(33) 93.7(34.3) 94.5(34.7) 89.7(32.1) 82.0(27.8) 72.5(22.5) 64.3(17.9) 79.7(26.5)Average low F (C) 43.2(6.2) 46.5


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(8.1) 52.5(11.4) 59.4(15.2) 67.6(19.8) 73.5(23.1) 75.1(23.9) 74.8(23.8) 69.8(21) 60.9(16.1) 52.1(11.2) 44.6(7) 60.0(15.6)Record low F (C) 5(-15) 6(-14) 21(-6) 31(-1) 42(6) 52(11) 62(17) 54(12) 45(7) 29(-2) 19(-7) 7

(-14) 5(-15)Average precipitation inches (mm) 3.38(85.9) 3.20(81.3) 3.41(86.6) 3.31(84.1) 5.09(129.3) 5.93(150.6) 3.79(96.3) 3.76(95.5) 4.12(104.6) 5.70(144.8) 4.34

(110.2) 3.74(95) 49.77(1,264.2)Average precipitation days (= 0.01 in) 9.6 9.2 8.8 6.8 8.010.6 9.1 8.3 8.0 7.9 8.2 9.5 104.0Average relative humidity (%) 74.7 73.4 72.7 73.1 75.0 74.674.4 75.1 76.8 75.4 76.0 75.5 74.7Mean monthly sunshine hours 143.4 155.0 192.5 209.8 249.2 281.3293.9 270.5 236.5 228.8 168.3 148.7 2,577.9Percent possible sunshine 44 50 52 54 59 6768 66 64 64 53 47 58Source: NOAA (relative humidity 19691990, sun 19611990)[56][65][66]Cityscape

Further information: Geographic areas of Houston and List of Houston neighborhoods

Houston was incorporated in 1837 under the ward system of representation. The ward designation is the progenitor of the eleven current-day geographically oriented Houston City Council districts. Locations in Houston are generally classifiedas either being inside or outside the Interstate 610 Loop. The inside encompasses the central business district and many residential neighborhoods that predateWorld War II. More recently, high-density residential areas have been developedwithin the loop. The city's outlying areas, suburbs and enclaves are located ou


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tside of the loop. Beltway 8 encircles the city another 5 miles (8.0 km) fartherout.

Though Houston is the largest city in the United States without formal zoning regulations, it has developed similarly to other Sun Belt cities because the city's land use regulations and legal covenants have played a similar role.[67][68] Regulations include mandatory lot size for single-family houses and requirementsthat parking be available to tenants and customers. Such restrictions have had mixed results. Though some[68] have blamed the city's low density, urban sprawl,and lack of pedestrian-friendliness on these policies, the city's land use has also been credited with having significant affordable housing, sparing Houston the worst effects of the 2008 real estate crisis.[69] The city issued 42,697 building permits in 2008 and was ranked first in the list of healthiest housing markets for 2009.[70]

Voters rejected efforts to have separate residential and commercial land-use districts in 1948, 1962, and 1993. Consequently, rather than a single central business district as the center of the city's employment, multiple districts have grown throughout the city in addition to downtown which include Uptown, Texas Medical Center, Midtown, Greenway Plaza, Memorial City, Energy Corridor, Westchase, and Greenspoint.Downtown Houston as seen from Hilton Americas.The western view of Downtown Houston skylineNorth Western View of the Texas Medical Center Skyline

The Uptown Houston skylineArchitectureThree skyscrapers visually overlap each other. The simple, rectangular tiers ofJPMorgan Chase Building contrast with the five-sided tower of the Pennzoil building and the stepped rows of spires of the Bank of America building.Four eras of buildings: Texas Company Annex (1910s), JPMorgan Chase Building (1920s), Pennzoil Place (1970s), and Bank of America Center (1980s)Main article: Architecture of HoustonSee also: List of tallest buildings in Houston

Houston has the fourth tallest skyline in North America (after New York City, Chicago and Toronto) and twelfth tallest in the world, as of 2014.[71][72][73] A seven-mile (11 km) system of tunnels and skywalks link downtown buildings contain

ing shops and restaurants, enabling pedestrians to avoid summer heat and rain while walking between buildings.

In the 1960s, Downtown Houston consisted of a collection of mid-rise office structures. Downtown was on the threshold of an energy industryled boom in 1970. A succession of skyscrapers were built throughout the 1970smany by real estate developer Gerald D. Hinesculminating with Houston's tallest skyscraper, the 75-floor, 1,002-foot (305 m)-tall JPMorgan Chase Tower (formerly the Texas Commerce Tower),completed in 1982. It is the tallest structure in Texas, 15th tallest buildingin the United States, and the 85th tallest skyscraper in the world, based on highest architectural feature. In 1983, the 71-floor, 992-foot (302 m)-tall Wells Fargo Plaza (formerly Allied Bank Plaza) was completed, becoming the second-tallest building in Houston and Texas. Based on highest architectural feature, it is

the 17th tallest in the United States and the 95th tallest in the world. In 2007, downtown Houston had over 43 million square feet (4,000,000 m) of office space.[74]

Centered on Post Oak Boulevard and Westheimer Road, the Uptown District boomed during the 1970s and early 1980s when a collection of mid-rise office buildings,hotels, and retail developments appeared along Interstate 610 west. Uptown became one of the most prominent instances of an edge city. The tallest building in Uptown is the 64-floor, 901-foot (275 m)-tall, Philip Johnson and John Burgee designed landmark Williams Tower (known as the Transco Tower until 1999). At the ti


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me of construction, it was believed to be the world's tallest skyscraper outsideof a central business district. The new 20-story Skanska building[75] and BBVACompass Plaza[76] are the newest office buildings built in the Galleria area after thirty years. The Uptown District is also home to buildings designed by notedarchitects I. M. Pei, Csar Pelli, and Philip Johnson. In the late 1990s and early 2000s decade, there was a mini-boom of mid-rise and high-rise residential tower construction, with several over 30 stories tall.[77][78][79] Since 2000 more than 30 high-rise buildings have gone up in Houston; all told, 72 high-rises tower over the city, which adds up to about 8,300 units.[80] In 2002, Uptown had more than 23 million square feet (2,100,000 m) of office space with 16 million square feet (1,500,000 m) of Class A office space.[81]

The Niels Esperson Building stood as the tallest building in Houston from 1927 to 1929.

The JPMorgan Chase Tower is the tallest building in Texas and the tallest 5-sided building in the world.

The Williams Tower is the tallest building in the U.S. outside of a centralbusiness district.

The Bank of America Center by Philip Johnson is an example of postmodern architecture.

JPMorgan Chase Tower in Houston, Texas is the tallest composite building inthe world

DemographicsMain article: Demographics of HoustonHistorical populationCensus Pop. %1850 2,396 1860 4,845 102.2%1870 9,332 92.6%1880 16,513 77.0%1890 27,557 66.9%1900 44,633 62.0%

1910 78,800 76.6%1920 138,276 75.5%1930 292,352 111.4%1940 384,514 31.5%1950 596,163 55.0%1960 938,219 57.4%1970 1,232,802 31.4%1980 1,595,138 29.4%1990 1,630,553 2.2%2000 1,953,631 19.8%2010 2,100,263 7.5%Est. 2014 2,239,558 [82] 6.6%U.S. Decennial Census

2011 estimateMap of racial/ethnic distribution in the city of Houston, 2010 census. Each dotrepresents 25 people. Red dots represent White people, orange dots represent Hispanic people, blue dots represent Black people, green dots represent Asian people, and gray dots represent other people

Houston is multicultural, in part because of its many academic institutions andstrong industries as well as being a major port city. Over 90 languages are spoken in the city.[83] It has among the youngest populations in the nation,[84][85][86] partly due to an influx of immigrants into Texas.[87] An estimated 400,000


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illegal immigrants reside in the Houston area.[88]

According to the 2010 Census, whites made up 51% of Houston's population; 26% ofthe total population were non-Hispanic whites. Blacks or African Americans madeup 25% of Houston's population. American Indians made up 0.7% of the population. Asians made up 6% (1.7% Vietnamese, 1.3% Chinese, 1.3% Indian, 0.9% Pakistani,0.4% Filipino, 0.3% Korean, 0.1% Japanese), while Pacific Islanders made up 0.1%. Individuals from some other race made up 15.2% of the city's population, of which 0.2% were non-Hispanic. Individuals from two or more races made up 3.3% ofthe city. At the 2000 Census, there were 1,953,631 people and the population density was 3,371.7 people per square mile (1,301.8/km). The racial makeup of the city was 49.3% White, 25.3% African American, 5.3% Asian, 0.7% American Indian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 16.5% from some other race, and 3.1% from two or more races. In addition, Hispanics made up 37.4% of Houston's population while non-Hispanic whites made up 30.8%,[89] down from 62.4% in 1970.[25]

The median income for a household in the city was $37,000, and the median incomefor a family was $40,000. Males had a median income of $32,000 versus $27,000 for females. The per capita income was $20,000. Nineteen percent of the population and 16% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population,26% of those under the age of 18 and 14% of those 65 and older were living belowthe poverty line.

According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center, 73% of the population of t

he city identified themselves as Christians, with 50% professing attendance at avariety of churches that could be considered Protestant, and 19% professing Roman Catholic beliefs.[90][91] while 20% claim no religious affiliation. The samestudy says that other religions (including Judaism, Buddhism, Islam, and Hinduism) collectively make up about 7% of the populationRacial composition 2010[92] 1990[25] 1970[25]White 50.5% 52.7% 73.4%Non-Hispanic 25.6% 40.6% 62.4%[93]Black or African American 24.7%[93] 28.1% 25.7%Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 43.7% 27.6% 11.3%[93]Asian 6.0% 4.1% 0.4%EconomyTop publicly traded companies

in Houston for 2013with Texas and U.S. ranksTexas Corporation US2 Phillips 66 45 ConocoPhillips 457 Enterprise Products Partners 648 Sysco 659 Plains All American Pipeline 7711 Halliburton 10614 Baker Hughes 13518 National Oilwell Varco 14421 Apache Corporation 16722 Marathon Oil 174

23 Waste Management 20029 EOG Resources 23330 Kinder Morgan 26534 Cameron International 31035 KBR 33437 Group 1 Automotive 34338 CenterPoint Energy 34439 Enbridge Energy Partners 3842 Quanta Services 41344 FMC Technologies 417


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46 Targa Resources 43548 MRC Global 45149 Calpine 45951 Spectra Energy 451NotesRankings for fiscal year ended January 31, 2013.Energy and oil (22 companies)Source: Fortune[94]Main article: Economy of HoustonFurther information: List of companies in HoustonPort of Houston along the Houston Ship Channel

Houston is recognized worldwide for its energy industryparticularly for oil and natural gasas well as for biomedical research and aeronautics. Renewable energy sourceswind and solarare also growing economic bases in the city.[95][96] The Houston Ship Channel is also a large part of Houston's economic base. Because of thesestrengths, Houston is designated as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network and global management consulting firm A.T. Kearney.[12] The Houston area is the top U.S. market for exports, surpassing New York City in 2013, according to data released by the U.S. Department of Commerce'sInternational Trade Administration. In 2012, the HoustonThe WoodlandsSugar Land area recorded $110.3 billion in merchandise exports.[97] Petroleum products, chemicals, and oil and gas extraction equipment accounted for approximately two-thirds of the metropolitan area's exports last year. The Top 3 destinations for expor

ts were Mexico, Canada, and Brazil.[98]The Houston area is a leading center for building oilfield equipment.[99] Much of its success as a petrochemical complex is due to its busy ship channel, the Port of Houston.[100] In the United States, the port ranks first in internationalcommerce and tenth among the largest ports in the world.[13][101] Unlike most places, high oil and gasoline prices are beneficial for Houston's economy, as manyof its residents are employed in the energy industry.[102]

The HoustonThe WoodlandsSugar Land MSA's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012 was$489 billion, making it the fourth-largest of any metropolitan area in the United States and larger than Austria's, Venezuela's, or South Africa's GDP.[103] Only 26 countries other than the United States have a gross domestic product exceed

ing Houston's regional gross area product (GAP).[104] In 2010, mining (which consists almost entirely of exploration and production of oil and gas in Houston) accounted for 26.3% of Houston's GAP up sharply in response to high energy pricesand a decreased worldwide surplus of oil production capacity, followed by engineering services, health services, and manufacturing.[105]A graph showing the major sectors of the Houston economy.[106]

The University of Houston System's annual impact on the Houston area's economy equates to that of a major corporation: $1.1 billion in new funds attracted annually to the Houston area, $3.13 billion in total economic benefit and 24,000 local jobs generated.[107][108] This is in addition to the 12,500 new graduates theU.H. System produces every year who enter the workforce in Houston and throughout the state of Texas. These degree-holders tend to stay in Houston. After five y

ears, 80.5% of graduates are still living and working in the region.[108]

In 2006, the Houston metropolitan area ranked first in Texas and third in the U.S. within the Category of "Best Places for Business and Careers" by Forbes magazine.[109] Foreign governments have established 92 consular offices in Houston'smetropolitan area, the third highest in the nation.[110] Forty foreign governments maintain trade and commercial offices here and 23 active foreign chambers ofcommerce and trade associations.[111] Twenty-five foreign banks representing 13nations operate in Houston, providing financial assistance to the internationalcommunity.[112]


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In 2008, Houston received top ranking on Kiplinger's Personal Finance Best Cities of 2008 list, which ranks cities on their local economy, employment opportunities, reasonable living costs, and quality of life.[113] The city ranked fourth for highest increase in the local technological innovation over the preceding 15years, according to Forbes magazine.[114] In the same year, the city ranked second on the annual Fortune 500 list of company headquarters,[115] first for Forbesmagazine's Best Cities for College Graduates,[116] and first on their list of Best Cities to Buy a Home.[117] In 2010, the city was rated the best city for shopping, according to Forbes.[118]

In 2012, the city was ranked #1 for paycheck worth by Forbes and in late May 2013, Houston was identified as America's top city for employment creation.[119][120]

In 2013, Houston was identified as the #1 U.S. city for job creation by the U.S.Bureau of Statistics after it was not only the first major city to regain all the jobs lost in the preceding economic downturn, but after the crash, more thantwo jobs were added for every one lost. Economist and vice president of researchat the Greater Houston Partnership Patrick Jankowski attributed Houston's success to the ability of the region's real estate and energy industries to learn from historical mistakes. Furthermore, Jankowski stated that "more than 100 foreign-owned companies relocated, expanded or started new businesses in Houston" between 2008 and 2010, and this openness to external business boosted job creation du

ring a period when domestic demand was problematically low.[120] Also in 2013, Houston again appeared on Forbes' list of Best Places for Business and Careers.[121]CultureMain article: Culture of HoustonSee also: List of events in HoustonHouston Art Car Parade

Located in the American South, Houston is a diverse city with a large and growing international community.[122] The metropolitan area is home to an estimated 1.1 million (21.4 percent) residents who were born outside the United States, withnearly two-thirds of the area's foreign-born population from south of the United StatesMexico border.[123] Additionally, more than one in five foreign-born resi

dents are from Asia.[123] The city is home to the nation's third-largest concentration of consular offices, representing 86 countries.[124]

Many annual events celebrate the diverse cultures of Houston. The largest and longest running is the annual Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo, held over 20 daysfrom early to late March, is the largest annual livestock show and rodeo in theworld.[125] Another large celebration is the annual night-time Houston Pride Parade, held at the end of June.[126] Other annual events include the Houston GreekFestival,[127] Art Car Parade, the Houston Auto Show, the Houston InternationalFestival,[128] and the Bayou City Art Festival, which is considered to be one of the top five art festivals in the United States.[129][130]

Houston received the official nickname of "Space City" in 1967 because it is the

location of NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. Other nicknames often used by locals include "Bayou City", "Clutch City", "Magnolia City", "New Houston" (atribute to the cultural contributions of New Orleans natives who left their cityduring the 2005 Hurricane Katrina catastrophe), and "H-Town".The annual Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo held inside the NRG Stadium.The George R. Brown Convention Center regularly holds various kinds of conventions.Arts and theaterHobby Center for the Performing ArtsMuseum of Fine Arts, Houston


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Houston Museum of Natural Science

The Houston Theater District, located downtown, is home to nine major performingarts organizations and six performance halls. It is the second-largest concentration of theater seats in a downtown area in the United States.[131][132][133] Houston is one of few United States cities with permanent, professional, residentcompanies in all major performing arts disciplines: opera (Houston Grand Opera), ballet (Houston Ballet), music (Houston Symphony Orchestra), and theater (TheAlley Theatre).[15][134] Houston is also home to folk artists, art groups and various small progressive arts organizations.[135] Houston attracts many touring Broadway acts, concerts, shows, and exhibitions for a variety of interests.[136]Facilities in the Theater District include the Jones Hallhome of the Houston Symphony Orchestra and Society for the Performing Artsand the Hobby Center for the Performing Arts.

The Museum District's cultural institutions and exhibits attract more than 7 million visitors a year.[137][138] Notable facilities include The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston Museum of Natural Science, the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston, theStation Museum of Contemporary Art, Holocaust Museum Houston, and the Houston Zoo.[139][140][141] Located near the Museum District are The Menil Collection, Rothko Chapel, and the Byzantine Fresco Chapel Museum.

Bayou Bend is a 14-acre (5.7 ha) facility of the Museum of Fine Arts that housesone of America's best collections of decorative art, paintings and furniture. B

ayou Bend is the former home of Houston philanthropist Ima Hogg.[142]The National Museum of Funeral History is located in Houston near the George Bush Intercontinental Airport. The museum houses the original Popemobile used by Pope John Paul II in the 1980s along with numerous hearses, embalming displays andinformation on famous funerals.

Venues across Houston regularly host local and touring rock, blues, country, dubstep, and Tejano musical acts. While Houston has never been widely known for itsmusic scene,[143] Houston hip-hop has become a significant, independent music scene that is influential nationwide.[144]Tourism and recreationChristopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center within the Johnson Space Center.

Discovery Green park in downtown.Shopping centers in Houston's Chinatown.

The Theater District is a 17-block area in the center of downtown Houston that is home to the Bayou Place entertainment complex, restaurants, movies, plazas, and parks. Bayou Place is a large multilevel building containing full-service restaurants, bars, live music, billiards, and Sundance Cinema. The Bayou Music Center stages live concerts, stage plays, and stand-up comedy. Space Center Houston is the official visitors' center of NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. The Space Center has many interactive exhibits including moon rocks, a shuttle simulator, and presentations about the history of NASA's manned space flight program. Other tourist attractions include the Galleria (Texas's largest shopping mall, located in the Uptown District), Old Market Square, the Downtown Aquarium, and Sam

Houston Race Park.The Galleria in the Uptown District is the largest mall in TexasShopping mall in the Mahatma Gandhi DistrictGerald D. Hines Waterwall Park in Uptown

Of worthy mention are Houston's current Chinatown and the Mahatma Gandhi District. Both areas offer a picturesque view of Houston's multicultural makeup. Restaurants, bakeries, traditional-clothing boutiques and specialty shops can be foundin both areas.


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Houston is home to 337 parks including Hermann Park, Terry Hershey Park, Lake Houston Park, Memorial Park, Tranquility Park, Sesquicentennial Park, Discovery Green, and Sam Houston Park. Within Hermann Park are the Houston Zoo and the Houston Museum of Natural Science. Sam Houston Park contains restored and reconstructed homes which were originally built between 1823 and 1905.[145] There is a proposal to open the city's first botanic garden at Herman Brown Park.[146]

Of the 10 most populous U.S. cities, Houston has the most total area of parks and green space, 56,405 acres (228 km2).[147] The city also has over 200 additional green spacestotaling over 19,600 acres (79 km2) that are managed by the cityincluding the Houston Arboretum and Nature Center. The Lee and Joe Jamail Skateparkis a public skatepark owned and operated by the city of Houston, and is one of the largest skateparks in Texas consisting of 30,000 (2,800 m2) square foot in-ground facility. The Gerald D. Hines Waterwall Parklocated in the Uptown District of the cityserves as a popular tourist attraction, weddings, and various celebrations. A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Houston the 23rd most walkable of the 50largest cities in the United States.[148] Wet'n'Wild SplashTown is a water parklocated north of Houston. A 640-acre theme park, called the Grand Texas Theme Park, will open in 2015 and is located near Houston in New Caney, Texas.[149]

The Bayport Cruise Terminal on the Houston Ship Channel will become port of callfor both Princess Cruises and Norwegian Cruise Line in 20132014.[150]SportsMain article: Sports in Houston

NRG Stadium is the home of the Houston Texans.

Houston has sports teams for every major professional league except the NationalHockey League (NHL). The Houston Astros are a Major League Baseball (MLB) expansion team formed in 1962 (known as the "Colt .45s" until 1965) that made one World Series appearance in 2005.[151] The Houston Rockets are a National BasketballAssociation (NBA) franchise based in the city since 1971. They have won two NBAChampionships: in 1994 and 1995.[152] The Houston Texans are a National Football League (NFL) expansion team formed in 2002. The Houston Dynamo are a Major League Soccer (MLS) franchise that has been based in Houston since 2006 after theywon two MLS Cup titles in 2006 and 2007. The Houston Dash play in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) .[153]

Minute Maid Park (home of the Astros) and Toyota Center (home of the Rockets), are located in downtown Houston. Houston has the NFL's first retractable-roof stadium with natural grass, NRG Stadium (home of the Texans).[154] Minute Maid Parkis also a retractable-roof stadium. Toyota Center also has the largest screen for an indoor arena in the United States built to coincide with the arena's hosting of the 2013 NBA All-Star Game.[155] BBVA Compass Stadium is a soccer-specificstadium for the Dynamo, the Texas Southern University football team, and Dash,located in East Downtown. In addition, NRG Astrodome was the first indoor stadium in the world, built in 1965.[156] Other sports facilities include Hofheinz Pavilion (Houston Cougars basketball), Rice Stadium (Rice Owls football), and Reliant Arena. TDECU Stadium is where the University of Houston Houston Cougars football team plays.[157]

Houston has hosted several major sports events: the 1968, 1986 and 2004 Major League Baseball All-Star Games; the 1989, 2006 and 2013 NBA All-Star Games; SuperBowl VIII and Super Bowl XXXVIII, as well as hosting the 2005 World Series and 1981, 1986, 1994 and 1995 NBA Finals, winning the latter two. Super Bowl LI is currently slated to be hosted in NRG Stadium in 2017.[158]

The city has hosted several major professional and college sporting events, including the annual Houston Open golf tournament. Houston hosts the annual NCAA College Baseball Classic every February and NCAA football's Texas Bowl in December.


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[159]

The Grand Prix of Houston, an annual auto race on the IndyCar Series circuit isheld on a 1.7-mile temporary street circuit in Reliant Park. The October 2013 event was held using a tweaked version of the 20062007 course.[160] The event has a5-year race contract through 2017 with IndyCar.[161] In motorcycling, the Astrodome hosted an AMA Supercross Championship round from 1974 to 2003 and the NRG Stadium since 2003.Government and politicsMain article: Politics of HoustonHouston City Hall

The city of Houston has a strong mayoral form of municipal government.[162] Houston is a home rule city and all municipal elections in the state of Texas are nonpartisan.[162][163] The City's elected officials are the mayor, city controllerand 16 members of the Houston City Council.[164] The current mayor of Houston is Annise Parker, a Democrat elected on a nonpartisan ballot whose third (and final) term in office will expire at the end of 2015. Houston's mayor serves as thecity's chief administrator, executive officer, and official representative, andis responsible for the general management of the city and for seeing that all laws and ordinances are enforced.[165]

The original city council line-up of 14 members (nine district-based and five at-large positions) was based on a U.S. Justice Department mandate which took effe

ct in 1979.[166] At-large council members represent the entire city.[164] Underthe city charter, once the population in the city limits exceeded 2.1 million residents, two additional districts were to be added.[167] The city of Houston's official 2010 census count was 600 shy of the required number; however, as the city was expected to grow beyond 2.1 million shortly thereafter, the two additional districts were added for, and the positions filled during, the August 2011 elections.

The city controller is elected independently of the mayor and council. The controller's duties are to certify available funds prior to committing such funds andprocessing disbursements. The city's fiscal year begins on July 1 and ends on June 30. Ronald Green is the city controller, serving his first term as of January 2010.

As the result of a 1991 referendum in Houston, a mayor is elected for a two-yearterm, and can be elected to as many as three consecutive terms. The term limitswere spearheaded by conservative political activist Clymer Wright.[168] The city controller and city council members are also subject to the same two-year, three-term limitations.

Houston is considered to be a politically divided city whose balance of power often sways between Republicans and Democrats. Much of the city's wealthier areasvote Republican while the city's working class and minority areas vote Democratic. According to the 2005 Houston Area Survey, 68 percent of non-Hispanic whitesin Harris County are declared or favor Republicans while 89 percent of non-Hispanic blacks in the area are declared or favor Democrats. About 62 percent Hispani

cs (of any race) in the area are declared or favor Democrats.[169] The city hasoften been known to be the most politically diverse city in Texas, a state knownfor being generally conservative.[169] As a result, the city is often a contested area in statewide elections.[169] In 2009, Houston became the first US city with a population over 1 million citizens to elect a gay mayor, by electing Annise Parker.CrimeHouston Police Department Memorial

Houston's murder rate ranked 46th of U.S. cities with a population over 250,000


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Three community college districts exist with campuses in and around Houston. TheHouston Community College System serves most of Houston. The northwestern through northeastern parts of the city are served by various campuses of the Lone Star College System, while the southeastern portion of Houston is served by San Jacinto College, and a northeastern portion is served by Lee College.[187] The Houston Community

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